Oleh: Dadang Supardan
Introduction
Education is unique, on the one hand is a part of culture, but on the other hand is a form of a specifiic acculturaion process (enculturation), differ from one society to another. Various form of education explained by Collins (1977)- the practical skills education, education for status group membership, and bureaucracy education – there is one thing that always need to be highlighted in the study of educational opportunities and inter-ethnic relations, this statement invites us to prioritize the power of education. As explained by Apple in his book the Education and Power, (1982), education is not merely having the power of intellectual transmitif, but also transformative.
The power of intellectual transmitive is referring to enculturation efforts and cultural reproduction (Apple: 21) which is to preserve the values that still need to be developed, while the intellectual transformative power is considering learning and teaching as a political activity, which arouse the students’ awareness to able enclose the asymmetric oppression and inequality between different groups in the realization of a participatory democratic system. Therefore according Giroux, the critical radical-education figure, education should pave the boundaries of schooling, including to ger involved into the public and political area. The task is meant to make the pedagogical to be more political, and make politic to tbe more pedagogical (Giroux, 1983: 242).
The critical education is mostly influenced by the Frankfurt school, especially Horkheimer, Adorno, Marcuse and Habermas. For them the critical education is not just a matter of learning methodology in classroom, but as the Freire, beyond the school and become a part of the people liberation, which in turn replaced the systemic inequality with the community and the students become more empowered. In conjunction with educational opportunities and inter-ethnic relations, the most important thing is how to make equality, democracy, political culture, ane critical education into realization for the community and students (Giroux, 1992; 11)
Actually, what underlies the importance of inter-ethnic relations or multiculturalism, which studies are increasing in various academic activities in education? The term “multiculturalism” for most of the subaltern as Indonesia in the view of post-colonial theory, is actually very misleading. How could it not? Because the inter-ethnic relations is wider than multiculturalism, given that inter-ethnic relation is a philosophical concept that builds on the ideas of religious freedom, justice, equality, equal rights, and human dignity is recognized in various documents, as listed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations (Howard: 2000: 127). It confirms that we need to prepare students to have their responsibilities in an interdependent world. Inter-ethnic relations are also meant to appreciate the role that schools can play a role in developing attitudes and values essential for a democratic society. This means that inter-ethnic relations in education also assess cultural differences and pluralism the students have, their communities, and the reflection of the teacher who was also a challenge to all forms of discrimination in schools and communities through the promotion of a fair democratic principles (Blum, 2001: 19).
In addition, inter-ethnic relations education studies is also a process of comprehensive school reformantion and basic education for all students. It is a challenge and rejection of racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and society and acceptance and affirmation of pluralism (ethnic, political, linguistic, religious, economic, education, and gender, among different people) for students, their communities, and the picture of the teacher . Inter-ethnic relations permeate education curriculum and instructional strategies used in schools. It is like the interaction between teachers, students, and parents, as well as the entire school in the way of conceptualizing the properties of learning and teaching. By using critical pedagogy that serves as the basic philosophy and focusing on the knowledge, reflection, and praxis as the basis for social change, therefore the inter-ethnic education promotes democratic principles of justice.
The Understanding and Scope of Inter-ethnic Relationship
The need to develop of inter-ethnic relations, as it says by a Harvard professor, Henry Louis Gates Jr., is like a quest in “a conversation among different voices” in finding a silence perspective on traditional scholastic naration. The term “inter-ethnic relations” is often synonymous with diversity, while the word “diversity” refers to differences. In scientific discussions, the discussion of inter-ethnic relations are intense with irrelevant, bad comments as well as the positive and good comments. Therefore, it is similar to the diversity of us. The book Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors by Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan reminds us that human differences we often see is merely the outside-size, such as the skin color, eye shape, hair texture, and so on, which are obviously differences than the more inside part.
In addition the term “inter-ethnic relations” is always attached to education, which has a wide range of meaning such as any set of processes by which schools work with rather than against oppressed groups (Sleeter, 1992: 141). This Opinion is in line with the statement expressed by Kymlicka (2002: 8, 24), the professor of philosophy at Queen University Canada, in his book Multicultural Citizenship, that inter-ethnic relation which is often related to multicultural, ideally is a recognition, appreciation, and fairness towards ethnic minorities concerning universal rights on the rights of individuals and their communities which collectivelt expressing their culture. Slightly different from Stavenhagen (1986), who view the concept of “multiculturalism” with two meanings.
The first concept; “multiculturalism” is a social reality in a heterogeneous society. As much as 95% of the countries in the world is basically multicultural considering they are ethnically and culturally plural. The second concept; “multiculturalism” has been appointed as a belief, ideology, attitudes, and policies that respect ethnic and cultural pluralism as something valuable, potentially, to be nurtured and grow. Keep in mind that in a plural society, there are two traditions in the history of social thought. First, that pluralism is a situation that shows a form of power-sharing among groups of people who joined or united, and that unition was developed through loyalty (cross-cutting) ownership of the shared values and the balance of power (Peh, 1985: 77-79). Second, the pluralistic society is associated with inter-ethnic relations, that the plural society is a society made up of various ethnic groups in a government system, resulted in conflict and coercion. The implications of the existence of the plural society according to Smith (1965) also has a variety of diverse cultural groups. Culturally diverse communities with multiculturalism is often discussed regarding the response in facing the social reality challanges, as well as recognition of the cultural diversity of the various cultures.
For Lawrence A. Blum, a professor of philosophy at the University of Massachuetts at Amherst, multiculturalism is an understanding, appreciation, and assessment of the culture of the people of different cultures and to understand how it expresses the values for its supporter. As he put it:
Multiculturalism includes an understanding, appreciation and assessment of one’s culture, and a culture of respect and curiosity about ethnic others. It includes an assessment of the cultures of others, not in the sense of approving all aspects of these cultures, but rather trying to see how certain cultures can express the value of its own members. (2001: 16)
The keywords of multiculturalism are the recognition of differences and appreciation, the two words that have been contrasted. Therefore, the approach to multiculturalism is not actually based on the ownership indicated he fully owns or owned a particular culture, but based on the awareness to appreciate and respect that is able to negotiate on formulations of existing realities. “It is not a part or completely detached from the culture, it is at the border” (Adler, 1982: 389). Cultural diversity is not the factor that divisive a nation, but is expected to be the “spice of life” as the adhesive of the nations in the world.
The elements of multiculturalism, according to Blum (2001:19) include three sub-values as follows: (a) affirm one’s cultural identity, studying and assesing one’s cultural heritage, (b) respect and desire to understand and learn about ethnic / cultures other than their own culture; (c) assessing and please with the sultrual difference itself, viewing the presence of groups of different cultures in one society as a positive virtue to be cherished and preserved. The Blum’s opinion will be described further below.
First, the notion of an “understanding of the cultural identity of others” as it did not require confirmation of any characteristics of culture as something that is really good. In this sense, it is not interpreted or asserted that all aspects of the culture that all “good” or “approved” as is widely feared by some critics of multiculturalism. An understanding of the cultural identity of others in this case does not preclude criticism based on the standards of the culture that may be violated by the special customs in the culture, as well as by external norms for that culture (Schramm, 2001: 7; Spradley, 1997: 13-15). The use of external standards for culture is allowed (eg: a particular standard of equality between men and women drawn from the liberal Western tradition), although it is complex. The concept of multiculturalism is always warned us to blame the culture as something universal, like saying “not feasible” or “disqualifying it” as a source of moral knowledge for those who are outside the culture. Therefore multiculturalism does not necessary and should not identify himself with the view that the members of a culture have never had any moral position to make a criticism about the habits of other cultures (Blum, 2001: 19). The most important view of recognition or understanding of other people’s culture is how these cultures can express the values for the members themselves (Harris and Moran, 2001: 57, Blum, 2001: 16).
Secondly, multiculturalism is “respecting the cultures of others”, an important continuation of the previous focus. This understanding is not only something that can be tolerated or justified, but required a critical response from external parties to participate in providing support, reasons, recognition, appreciation, assessment, strengthening, and empathy in a togetherness as the part of integrated nation. Because tolerance, recognition, and appreciation of other cultures and ethnicities, will contribute in providing a sense of security and comfort, which in turn increase the self-esteem because there is a self-confidence. The cultural identity of an individu is a precious element of themeselves to understand their own culture and should be the important part of the education. The understanding of other’s culture will be a significant contribution to a particular individual and society about which culture is a part of them, as an integral part of the first elements of multiculturalism.
Multiculturalism is a Necessity
Indonesia is a pluralist nation, maybe the most pluralist in the world. This nation is made up of hundreds of ethnicities, religions, cultures, and customs, which is spread over the 13,000 large and small islands, and speaking hundreds of regional languages (Koentjaraningrat, 1970, 21-33; Thohari, 2000: 129). This multidimensional pluralism has formed a beautiful and fascinating mosaic of Indonesian, yet prone to conflict. The inability to manage this pluralism may encourage a social and political upheavals of SARA (Suku, Ras, Agama, dan Antar golongan/Ethnic, Religion, Race, Inter-group) that occurred lately as seperatist agent.
Indonesia is not the only ethnically pluralistic nation. Americans for example, also known as the ethnically pluralistic nation. Because of its pluralistic American made ”E pluribus Unum” as their tagline. Canada has a multiculturalism policy with its “mosaic“, and the jargon of “unity in diversity” (mergers, 1985: 258, Supardan, 2002: 34), similar to “Bhineka Tunggal Ika/Unity in Diversity” of Indonesian. Singapore also called himself a pluralist nation, despite the domination of Chinese. There are many pluralist nation. Only few countries inhabited by the one ethnic only. In short, pluralism is not exclusively ours, but it is a general phenomenon that can be found anywhere.
Inter-ethnic relations and multiculturalism is actually an imperative socio-political policy. Because the fact of ethnic and cultural plurality is not only justified historically, sociologically, antopologically, but also theological. Moreover, pluralism is also a logical consequence of the urbanization and globalization waves occurring in the world. What needs to be avoided in this multiculturalism is the tendency of the narrow ethnic exclusivism and fanaticism. There is always a pottential to trigger conflict in ethnic fanaticism and it is inherent in the multiethnic society caused by the stereotypes and prejudices of other social prejudice. The problem is how to avoid the negative potential to actualize itself. It means that it is necessary to set the requirements and become the determination of the ideological multiculturalism of Indonesian people of all ethnic, religious groups, cultural, languages as one nations that is truly internalized, and practiced, without losing the identity of the “primordial” which is rich of discrepancy.
The answer proposed to address these issues is also not possible to eliminate the identity of the “primordial” to oppress the rich diversity of identity even with the intention of strengthening national unity. It is the same as “socially and culturally dead” (Magnis-Soeseno, 2000: 30). From the anthropic (depreciation) of an original identity, may not appear new identity. So it is impossible to unite a nation of various components by eliminating the pluralism. The Indonesian identity as Javanese, Sundanese, Batak, Minang, Dayak, Bugis, Ambon, Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism, and so on may not be dissolved. It can not bring the real identity of Indonesia, it merely destroys its true identity. Indonesian may not be built by the people other than Indonesian itself. Although ironically many of our leaders and rulers take the shortcuts like that. The national unity achived that is simply a false unity that was built by the identity of the empty state’s rites (Piliang, 2001: 227; Magnis-Suseno, 2000: 31).
Individuals and groups in their role as human being has an identity with a unique identity, always trying to harmonise all the knowledge and perception of reality in its sociality. As a pluralist nation, the nature of primordial should be understood. If only someone had roots in a social environment that includes primordial, then he works according to his own portion, it does not mean primordial. Because the socio-cultural root is the requirement of personal integrity and psychic. In contrast to a primordial connection (the reasonable) which becomes primordialistic (unreasonable) which go beyond the circle primordial, become “exclusive”, someone to identify themselves only by one of the primordial elements alone. It was clear that desocialization has happened to that person, a social impoverishment because he no longer able to feel solidarity with another as human beings in the unity of the nation. This kind of attitude can even be the narrow primordial fanatic if one of primordial connections such as race or religion become so dominant. Families and the general dominant values eventually become ignored. This primodialism can be considered as “psychic pathology” when it comes to the individual, and social pathology when it comes to group (Horton & Hunt, 1999: 195-197). This kind of primordialism tend to a regression, a rejection of openness.
Developing relationships is in many cases can cause anxiety to the relationship between religion and culture. This concern can be answered in a simple fact: that religion is God’s permanent creation and universal, culture is man-made which is temporal and spatial. When traced back, the concerns were grounded in fears about the theological relationship between the sacred and the profane (Eliade, 2001: 274-275; 2002: 211). Extentially, if the deity (religion) is understood and internalized as the ultimate goal which emerge what is called the “actualization”, the actualization of God’s in behaviour will eliminate the dualism between the sacred and the profane. Thus religion is a sacred substance or the essence of culture (Abdullah, 2003: xii). Ironically, not all religious believers understand this issue correctly. They are rather phobia in understanding the local culture. The power of formal religious hegemony supported by the orthodoxy authority of local culture in subjecting traditional art vis-à-vis religious authorities. Kuntowijoyo (2003: 16), the historian and humanist of Universitas Gajah Mada, is feeling concern about the phenomenon, saying that not a few people view religion has become a cultutal “bulldozer” againts the plurality of cultural expression. The local culture traditions are actually loaded with philosophical messages, in the aspect of spiritual, moral, mentality, and social social criticism and message (Abdullah, 2003: xiii). The art analysts argue that art is the only region that is difficult to be co-opted by the state’s institutions (Mack, 2001: 7-11; Dickie, 1971: 27; Peransi, 1985: 8-9). Art is an expression of life and living as well as the source of inspiration for the movement of spiritual, moral, social in loosen the social tension. Behind its limitation in the local institutions, art contains a universal meaning that can be parallel with religion for noble human attitude.
The ethnic and cultural pluralism in Indonesia, historically and anthropologically, is very conducive for the implementation of a multicultural approach. Indonesia, which nation’s motto is Unity in Diversity (Bhineka Tunggal Ika), is absolute and its historical truth can not be denied since the time of the previous kingdom. The Majapahit kingdom had political relations, expressed in the slogan of “mitreka satata” which means “friendship based on mutual respect”, with Southeast Asian kingdoms such as Champa, Sham, Burma. Empu Tantular the poet once described religious life so well in his essay Sutasoma with the phrase of “bhinneka tunggal ika tan hana darma mangrua” which means “one in diversityi, no religion has different purpose” (Darmodihardjo, 1985: 17). Empu Tantular had the motto as the Majapahit kingdom philosophy of its era.
Anthropologically, Indonesian is rich in ethnic diversity, culture, religion, language, customs and traditions that live in a pluralistic society, it all depends on the local genius that is primordial (Sumardjo, 2002: 23). Local Genius which is primordial determined by the infrastructure of the community livelihoods. According to Kluckhohn (1953), there are seven elements of the culture, whether it is small, isolated, and simple, or large, complex and advanced. These seven elementa are language, technology systems, economic systems, social organization, knowledge systems, religion, and art (Koentjaraningrat, 1986: 83). Through hundreds years evolution and transformation, if only we are willing to learn, then our political and social organizations in the nation and the state, all its flaws will appear in front of us. If this indeed is happening, it is conceivable that the stagnation in the history of consciousness can not be avoided, because awareness of relevance, quality of life is beginning. In any profession and social roles, if you’re having a “sense of relevance”, its presence could be alienated from the necessity of the times and the demands of society (Abdullah, 2001: 218, 260).
No one hope this ethnic conflict will continue to be the dark cloud of Indonesian politic future. No one wisht ethnic could be the fire in the chaff, ethnic elements can burn any buildings of Indonesian politics any tiime. Even though the ethnic conflict had happened in Kalimantan and Maluku, but sporadically it is concerned to spread to other areas, especially densely populated urban areas. Our expectations, this ethnic pluralism could be a bond the urban, especially in regions with a strong criminal community (premanisme) as an economic base of migrants (Suparlan, 2001: 2-3; Piliang, 2002: 232). Abdullah (2001: 93-94) argues that social riots or social anarchy that we have experienced lately is a harsh reflection of the diverse communities that are in “silence” without the protection system of local leadership and a healthy and functional civil society.
Once we understand some of the obstacles in the effort to create a multicultural society harmony, we also need to understand its opportunities and developments in the world in general and Indonesia in particular. The preceding discussion has mentioned that “more than 95% of the world’s countries are ethnically heterogeneous … According to some estimates, there are close to 5,000, diverse ethnic group in the world” (Jandt, 1998: 419). This heterogeneity fact in reality does not fully accept or reject the multiculturalism policy. According to Supriya (2001: 37), there are four possible combinations of multiculturalism as described above:
The Role of Inter-ethnic relation and the Cultural Culture in the Nation’s Integration
Maybe it sounds a bit strange if someone fight to achieve independence through national culture. Cabral (1973: 41), a hero of independence in Guinea-Bissau Africa who wrote the book Return to the Source, explained that culture becomes an element of resistance to foreign domination: “the manifestation of a strong ideological or idealist plane of the physical reality and the historical society dominated “. The next statement Cabral (1979: 143) in another book, Unity and Struggle, asserted that culture is a vital element in the process of liberation. National liberation expressed as a cultural act, a political expression of the people who are doing the fighy. Thus culture can be a positive influence on people and their condition.
Franz Fanon (1979: 143), an Algerian fighter living as a respected psychiatrist and triumphed because perjuanggannya seize kemeredekaan, in his book The Wretched of the Earth, said that;
…the national culture claims in the past is not only able to rehabilitate that nation and serve as a justification for the hope of the future national culture. In term of soul-affective balance, colonialism should be responsible for the important changes happened in the natives …. Persistence in following cultural forms that are extinct is nationality demonstration; yet the demonstration is now bouncing back. No offensive and no redefinition regarding the relationships. There is only concentrating on the core of our culture which is more withering, silent, and empty.
A similar opinion is also expressed by Edward W. Said (1996; 13), a humanist intellectual, the pioneer of Postcolonial Theory and world-leading cultural critics of the Middle East in his work Culture and Imperialism. He filed a rejection to the arguments sayng that the colonial people’s culture and national identity is still a single and pure entity, yet destroyed by the West. Said (1996, 14) explain that:
… Culture is a sort of a thearitical stage in which various political power and ideology are interrelated. Instead of become an Apollonia grace which is calm, culture can become a battle stage in which those causes shows themselves and have battle …. there is also the west opinion that considered culture is more important, separate it from the everyday life. Consequently most professional humanist does not capable to determine a link between the dirty and contonous cruelty and practices such as slavery, colonial and racial oppresion, as well as the imperial conquest on one hand with poetry, fiction, and philosophy of society on the other hand.
The questions arising based the above explanation is; could the heterogeneous cultures (plural) in a nation be a positive force particularly in improving the national integration? We are more used to justify a the opinion of sociologist Emile Durkheim (1964: 79) as outlined in his masterpiece The Division of Labor in Society, that the similarity is a source of creation of social solidarity which is driven by the collective consciousness (especially by mechanical solidarity, which is different from the organic solidarity). Mechanical solidarity is based on a “collective consciousness” which refers to the totality of beliefs and sentiments that are common to that common citizen. Therefore, it depends on the individuals who have similar characteristics, beliefs, and the normative pattern.
In contrast, the organic solidarity emerge from the increasing division of labor, which result in a high dependence society structure. This interdependence is increasing as the result of the increasing specialization in the division of labor, which increase allows a more exciting differences among individuals (Johnson, 1986; 184-185). Thus solidarity arise because of the differences in the level of the individual which remodeling the collective consciousness. Organic solidarity is basically possible in achieving solidarity and integration of the nation because of its individuals and ethnic’s dependence is higher. The statement is also in line with the example of public awareness needed in the United States, written by Robert N. Bellah (1985: 117), in Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life, that our concept of inter-ethnic/racial community should allow the recognition of differences. The tradition in our mind which is strong yet misleading is that the human only feel as a common community when they consider themselves “equal” to the other members of the community. Bellah (1985: 118) confirms that the community type needed in the United States is a pluralistic community, a community that includes a sense of attachment and relationships derived from events, circumstances, tasks, shared location and so – and mainly based on common humanitarian experience – and also recognizing and assessing cultural differences and other differences.
Another studiy on the role of ethnic relationship to national integration, according to the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), are at least: (1) promote a harmonious society, (2) realizing an appropriate cultural relationship model, (3) respecting differences, (4) improving the social prejudices, (5) respecting diversity and developing democracy (http://eric-web. tc. Columbia.edu / alerts / she 35.html)
Matile (1996) in an effort to realize a harmonious life in a society, based on research results stated that “… these strategies offer opportunities to recognize and appreciate diversity; instill sensitivity; and appreciate the contribution of the varied ethnic, linguistic, and cultural groups of the city “. Efforts to recognize, appreciate, and embed the diversity of socio-cultural sensitivity can be stated in the following the reasons.
First, the principle of inter-ethnic relations in learning is mostly about understanding of different cultures, hence the desire to learn about other cultures of different ethnicity. Second, the principle of multiculturalism is encouraging to respect the ethnic diversity and different cultures. Therefore, if the concept is implemented consistently, it may be able to reduce the horizontal conflicts between ethnic groups that might occur. It means that treating all ethnic cultures exist fairly and equally may avoid possibility of a particular culture dominance that might block the development of minority cultures (Blum, 2001: 15-16).
Other studies on the role of multiculturalism to realize the appropriate or harmonious cultural relationship model, can be explained based on O’Mara’s study (1996) on a number of Hollywood movies in relation to education. He asserted “Show how entertainment media can support educational themes; concepts include the idea of a subculture, cultural values, and cultural models for appropriate interpersonal”. Thus, in the case of inter-ethnic relationship the media may show how it can support the fields of education, sub-culture, the cultural value that developed as part of the interpersonal relationships.
The statement can be understood movies basically requires a minimum three aspects, the aspect of expression capabilities, analyze, and self transformation (Sitorus, 2002: xvi). Development of expression capabilities associated with cultural flexibility that can be universally accepted. The movie presentation in the analogy of particular culture, even if it is different with the surrounding culture, must have a value of flexural properties (flexibility) and highly adaptive. The properties of this adaptive and flexible would be the trigger for its easy acceptance by the general public.
The development of the “analyzing” ability is associated with “fluency” aspect in the searching the causes and its implications. The fluency aspect is an important part in the characterization of cultural creativity in exploring the riches of its potential. While the aspect of “self transformation” is related to originality. In the sense of the ability to give meaning based on its flair and instinct. Stanislavsky in An Actor prepares suggested: Do not lose yourself on the stage, and act always based on your personality. Once you lose yourself on stage, you will no longer be able to appreciate your real role (Stanislavsky, 1989; 189). If an actor’s transformation ability is compared to cultural performances, make that culture attractive to other to be learned more because of its unique and original characteristics.
The importance of inter-ethnic relations in other parts may contribute to cultural differences appreciation. Padersen (1995), a counselor conducted a research in elementary school suggest that: “a base for understanding cultural bias, and provides practical strategic to promote child development in a multicultural society”. Pedersen argues that multicultural learning is very useful in understanding the cultural biases that exist in society. Because there is possibility that what students heard from the others in society about culture of a particular ethnic is in fact different once they learned about that ethnic culture directly. Through multicultural learning, cultural bias can be avoided if it is learned early in school.
Multicultural learning may affect the effort to appreciate the cultural differences and a trigger in improving student achievement. Ploumis-Devick (1996) a researcher who conducted research in American elementary schools, indicate in the research conclusion: Provides general backround on cultural diversity and its impact; descriptions of successful programs; and strategies, activities, and resources for classroom use. The result above is actually not surprising, since by introducing and teaching students through a variety of cultures exist in the community, students will know and learn about the culture, which in turn will make them appreciate the cultural diversity. In addition, multicultural learning will also seek to demonstrate the existence of culture that requires recognition in the social environment. If this statement associated to Maslow’s opinion (1954: 72), known as the theory of “Hierarchy of Needs”, it can be categorized as the social esteem needs.
On the other hand, the inter-ethnic relations are may also reduce the prejudice against other ethnic cultures. Ponterotto (1995), conducted research which lead to the conclusion that inter-ethnic leaning plays a role for: Describes theories to explain the increase of of insidents of intergroup conflict and the role of the teacher in multicultural awareness and prejudice prevention programs “. Inter-ethnic relations learning can acts as a preventive to the increasing prejudice and intergroup conflict, because through inter-ethnic learning students may learn to appreciate each different ethnic cultures, assessing their each advantages and disadvantages, and at the end they will accept that there is no perfect culture or the cultrue that have no merit or benefits. In fact, according to “functionalist culture” school or a functional theory of culture, Malinowski written in his monumental latest work A scientific Theory of culture and Other Essays, that all the cultural activities it is actually intended to satisfy a set of a number of human needs (Kaberry , 1957: 82).
Inter-ethnic relations also serve to unite the nation’s culture. The research conducted by Ravitch (1996) examined the relationship between ethnic perspective in relation to the unity of American culture. He explained that Compare California’s pluralistic and New York’s particularistic approaches; argues for an education that appreciates diversity and supports the commitment to a unified American culture. Through a comparative approach toward the pluralistic New York and California communities, they assume that the inter-ethnic relations in education that respects diversity and support responsibility for a united American culture is important. The inter-ethnic relations that play a role in the effort to unite the nation’s culture is in accordance with their state’s motto E pluribus Unum or Unity in Diversity, which is similar to the Unity in Diversity of Indonesia (mergers, 1985: 258; McLemore: 1980: 35; Supardan 2002 : 34).
The Implementation of Inter-Ethnic Relation in Various Countries
Currently, the policy on inter-ethnic relations are rapidly expanding. Inter-ethnic relations have now evolved into a kind of beliefs, attitudes, and policies. Inter-ethnic relations is not just a slogan, political rhetoric, or merely a symbolic recognition of the social reality wealth. Inter-ethnic relations has become a true recognition of the identity of the group that supports it and aligned with national identity. Supriya (2001:37) and Supardan (2002:35) argues that there are four possible combinations of multiculturalism. First; country with heterogeneous ethnic and cultural realities that accept the idea of multiculturalism. Second, country with heterogeneous ethnic and cultural realities, but the government policy is likely to lead to monoculturalism. Third, a country with the homogenous ethnic/racial realities which maintain a monoculturalistic policy. Fourth, countries with a high homogenousity of ethnic/racial reality but very much appreciate multiculturalism. United States, Canada, India, Australia, Malaysia, are the example of the first group of countries. PRC is an example of the second group. Israeli Jews who believe in racial superiority of the jews as the “Chosen People of God” can be included in the third category.
Which group is Indonesia? Theoretically, with its Bhineka Tunggal Ika/Unity in Diversity, Indonesia is included in the first category, such as Canada and the United States with their E Pluribus Unum (Unity in Diversity). However, the public policy practice, especially before the reformation era, Indonesia tends to be in the second category (Coppel, 2003: 13; Suryadinata, 2003: 5-6). The phenomenon still seems stereotyping, social prejudice and racism in Indonesia is still dominance (Supriya, 2001: 29). For example, there are names of “Padang Bengkok/Croocked Padang”, “Batak Rentenir and Tukang Copet”, “Cina Licik “, “Jawa Koek “, and so on. While for the evidence of racism can be seen in the “Sambas and Sampit Tragedy ” in Borneo and the “Posso Traged ” which recently occurred.
However It doesn’t mean that all inter-ethnic relations potential in Indonesia are negative, because in some ways it demonstrates the potential and positive phenomenon, particularly the Indonesian Language as the Unity and National Language. Hertzler (1965: 231), a professor of Sociology in his work A Sociology of Language conveyed that:
… such economic condition as wide markets and non-discrimination in employment; wide and ready physical mobility in the pursuit of desirable regional, economic and other life conditions; opportunity for political participation; freedom from rigid social stratification and social distance and, conversely, freedom of social opportunity and social mobility; access to all levels of educational opportunity. As in the case of group unity and unification, language is also of the facilitator of all these conditions.
The economic, political, social condition is importance to create a conducive condition to national unity. Hertzler even further believes that language factors also play an important role in the “consciousness of unity”. Therefore the nature of language equations (Indonesian) is an example of the language centripetal potential, consciously or unconsciously, by youths in 1928 that has been used as a tool in emerging the Indonesian nation. Unity and integrity in the case of Indonesia, according to Hertzler can be reached more easily through the mastery and understanding of the National Language (Indonesian) which is the official and unity language, will be the catalyst that contributes to national integration, as Hertzler stated (1965: 229) .
What is more, with the acquisition of the common language (its lexicon, syntax, idioms, the conception of reality and Weltanschauung evidenced by its peculiar structure), there comes the learning of subttler aspects of the surrounding cultural and social world: the underlying values and attitudes, the elements of the “spirit” and “style” behind the ways of larger social life… Assimilation becomes easier and more rapid, the greater the similarity of mental and social equipment of persons in both the dominant and foreign groups. Linguistic similarity and compatibility— a common Sprachgefuhl— is the key expediting agency. In general, the enculturation of person is only possible as they learn to speak and understand the language of the cultural community.
The above quote have menaing and can be applied in term of stengthening the sense of national unity of Indonesia. By eliminating the understanding of dominant groups in Indonesia as a greater unity, as well as foreign groups with smaller units or groups as the forming factor of Indonesia. The objective conditions in Indonesia, which illustrates the paradoxical fact is not always reveal the positive or negative side. But clearly there are favorable factors that can work in achieving the expected national integration. In addition, the use of local languages by foreign Asian ancestry groups (Chinese and Arabic) helps strengthening the integration of the Indonesian.
According to the multicultural education experts there are three models of multicultural education (Sleeter and Grant; 1993; Banks, 1994, and Schwartz, 1992) which include: (1) programs that focus on information, (2) programs which will focus on how students should learn, and (3) programs that focus on social issues.
For programs that focus on information, this is the most common type of inter-ethnic relations in education and multicultural, specifically for grade XI of High School for Sociology Subjects. In these subjects, there are three topics focused on cultural differences in cultural group by adding a few short readings to the standard curriculum or by including subjects of (1) social integration, (2) multicultural society and issues, (3) the group development in multicultural society. The program includes a lot deeper multicultural materials that still covers several issues which include materials and profound ideas about some of the diverse sociocultural problems.
Examples of this program is the study of traditional ethnic minorities who require guidance specifically on “alienated” ethnics such as; Kubu, Sasak, Badui, Tenger, and so on. Furthermore, it also revealed how the “advanced” ethnic minorities can provide a positive development contribution to the progress of society at large, through social integration measures, assimilation, acculturation, and so on. The problem is, the education implementation is too early to evaluate the learning outcomes of inter-ethnic relations, considering that the Kurikulun Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP/ Education Unit Curriculum) has newly implemented in the last few years.
Then for programs that focus on how students learn, this multicultural program tries to bring up the characteristics or customs owned by their respective traditional ethnic minority, advanced minority, as well as larger ethnic groups (Javanese, Sundanese, Minang , Batak, and so on). In this program, what was suggested by Sunders (1988: 123) on the approach of the values that support the advancement and favorable and the values that are less supportive and unfavorable are introduced to students. The purpose of this introduction is to assure that every ethnic culture has advantages and disadvantages. As the implications of the statement, the students areis not allowed to be a fanatic supporter of a particular ethnic. Studies of gender or femininity also introduced in this program.
Whereas for programs that focus on social issues, are trying to improve the education in school and the political and cultural climate in school. For example, they try to increase the ethnic tolerance and heterogeneous culture that is lately surfaced (the conflict od intermingling of the native with the Chinese ethnic, conflict of Dayak and Madurese ethnic, for example). This program encourages students to become more tolerant, empathetic, and teach in ways that let students to work and solve problems together (“cooperative learning”). One thing to be proud is that Chinese in Indonesia volunteered to use the local languages as well as Indonesian.
Conclusion
From the above discussion that the question is still open to debate is whether critical education idea (Appel, Freire, and Giroux) from modernism to postmodernism marks the optimism of the education role as the production and transformation of cultural transformation, not the reproduction of culture? Is it true that schools are able to become a means of empowerment and liberation of individuals and groups in a just society by promoting individual and collective autonomy in participatory democratic system that respects diversity and the diversity of social and cultural groups? This opinion viewed democracy as a celebration of difference and diversity, not to serve the agenda of elite minority and the ideology of majority rulers. Another issue needs to be examined is whether the change in the view of critical education– which is known better for the “emotional power”, in which prose and his ideas is excited, but its contribution to of everyday life is limited –is merely general and visionary (according to Miedama and Wardekker (1999: 68), critical education is still very young). Even so, the thoughts is still promising for us, thinking is indeed very human, which is so tempestuous as its optimism, however, education still needs its vision.
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