Multiculturalism and Multiculturalism Education in Indonesia: Opportunities and Challanges

Oleh: Dadang Supardan

Definition and Scope of Multicultural

As it is said by a Harvard professor, Henry Louis Gates Jr., “multiculturalism” is like a quest in “a conversation among different voices” in finding a silence perspective on a traditional scholastic narration. Traced down, the term “multiculturalism” origin is during 1960s, after the civil rights movement as a correction to the assimilationist policies toward the minority groups of the melting pot that have long been the dominant culture of the United States, especially in New York and California (Banks, 1984: 3, 164; Sobol, 1990: 18). The term “multiculturalism” is often synonymous with diversity, while the word “diversity” refers to differences. Commonly, the discussion of “multiculturalism” is often intense about the irrelevant and bad comments and also the positive and good comments. Therefore, they are more like the different us. In the book, Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors, by Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan, we are reminded that that we often only see the outside of human differences, such as skin color, eye shape, hair texture and so on, which do not equal with the differences that exist in it.

Moreover, the term “multiculturalism” is always attached to education, which meaning includes any set of processes by roomates schools work with rather than against oppressed groups (Sleeter, 1992: 141). That opinion is in line with Kymlicka’s statement (2002: 8, 24), professor of philosophy at Queen’s University, Canada, in his book Multicultural Citizenship, that multiculturalism is a recognition, appreciation, and fairness towards ethnic minorities, regarding the universal rights of the individuals and their communities’ rights in expressing their collective culture. Slightly different from Stavenhagen (1986), which consider that the concept of “multiculturalism” contains two concepts.

The first concept; “multiculturalism” is a social reality in a heterogeneous society. This statement is based on that 95% of the countries in the world is basically multicultural and ethnically and culturally plural. The second concept; “multiculturalism” has been addressed as a belief, ideology, attitudes, and policies that respect ethnic and cultural pluralism as something valuable, potentially, to be maintained and developed. It should be noted that in a plural society, there are two traditions in the history of social thought. First, that pluralism is a situation that shows a form of power-sharing among groups of people who joined or united, and the unity is developed through basic loyalty (cross-cutting) of the shared values ownership ​​and the balance of power (Peh, 1985: 77-79). Second, a plural society is associated with inter-ethnic relations, that the plural society is a society made ​​up of various ethnic groups that are in the system of government, therefore, are often in conflict and coercion. The implications of the plural society existence according to Smith (1965) also have a variety of diverse cultural groups. Culturally diverse communities with multiculturalism are often discussed in terms of response to the challenges in facing the social reality, as well as recognition of the cultural diversity of the plural society.

Multiculturalism in its development as an attitude, social practices, and government policies, which now have been extended to a belief or policy of the government, sort of an ‘ideology’ in the development of culture have created a healthy society. Berry, Poortinga, and Segall (1998: 577-580) in Cross-cultural psychology: Research and applications, mention that multiculturalism is primarily aimed at creating a sociopolitical context that allows individuals to develop a healthy identity and mutually developing positive attitudes among groups.

Nico T. Harjanto (2001: 89-90), an analyst at the Department of Politics and Social Change, relates multiculturalism to the integration of the nation, in his article titled Antara Kebangsaan dan Kewarganegaraan, said that rather than approach ethnocultural nationalism/ethnic nationalism and civic-nationalism, it is a multicultural nationalism. He argues that through the development of multicultural nationalism a more reliable integration of the nation can be maintain and developed. Therefore, creating a society with social justice which unite by shared values​​; appreciate ethnicity diversity and committed to the equality among groups will allow the creation of a social and political ideal of togetherness in difference (Young, 1990: 175). The achievement of national unity that respects diversity, was once exemplified by Prime Minister Trudeau, a French-Canadian descent who is often used as a model of multicultural consistent with his “the mosaic” policy (mergers, 1985: 252; Supardan, 2002: 34). Mergers (1985: 258) further states that:

The Canadian ideology, in contrast, has historically favored a more pluralistic outcome of the massing of various ethnic groups. There has been and remains a greater awarness and tolerance of ethnic separateness. A simplified view is “unity in diversity”. Canada in this ideal view, is mosaic, the various pieces of which fit together within common political and economic framework.

The multiculturalism loaded with appreciation, respect, and unity in a diverse community is what addressed by a professor of philosophy at the University of Massachuetts at Amherst, Lawrence A. Blum (2001: 16). He argues that multiculturalism is an understanding, appreciation, and assessment of the culture of different people. In addition, multiculturalism also view how certain cultures can express the value of its own members, as pointed out that:.

Multiculturalism includes an understanding, appreciation and assessment of one’s culture, and a culture of respect and curiosity about other’s. It includes an assessment of the other’s cultures, not in the sense of approving all aspects of the cultures, but trying to see how certain cultures can express the value of its own members.

The keywords in multiculturalism are the recognition of differences and appreciation, the two words that have often been contrasted. Therefore, the approach to multiculturalism is not actually based on the ownership that indicated on owning a particular culture or owned by particular culture, but based on the awareness to appreciate and respect that is able to negotiate on the existing realities formulation. “Multiculturalism is not complete a part or completely detached from the culture, it’s rather at the border” (Adler, 1982: 389). Cultural diversity is not the determining factor of the nation’s separation, but is expected to be the “spice of life” as the adhesive of various nations in the world.

Multiculturalism elements, according to Blum (2001:19), include three sub-grades as follows: (a) affirming one’s cultural identity, studying and assesing one’s cultural heritage, (b) respecting and having a desire to understand and learn about ethnic/culture, other than their own culture; (c) assessing and feeling happy with the difference in the culture, such as by cosidering groups of different cultures in one society as a positive virtue to be respected and maintained. Blum’s opinion will be described further below.

First, the notion of “the understanding of the other’s cultural identity” did not require confirmation of any characteristics of culture as something that is good. In this sense, it is not interpreted or asserted that all aspects of the culture is “good”, as widely feared by some critics of multiculturalism. An understanding of the cultural identity of others, in this case, does not block criticism based on the standards of the culture that may be violated by the special customs in the culture, as well as the external norms towards that culture (Schramm, 2001: 7; Spradley, 1997: 13-15). The use of external standards for a culture is right (eg a particular standard of equality between men and women drawn from the liberal Western tradition), although it is a complex issue. The concept of multiculturalism was always warned to blame the culture as a universal, like determining it as “not feasible” or “disqualifying”  it as a source of moral knowledge for those outside the culture. Therefore multiculturalism is unnecessary and does not have to identify itself with the opinion that the members of a culture have never had any moral standing to make a criticism about another culture habits (Blum, 2001: 19). The most important view of recognition or understanding other people’s culture is how these cultures can express the values ​​for their members (Harris and Moran, 2001: 57, Blum, 2001: 16).

Secondly, multiculturalism is “respecting the cultures of others”, an important continuation of the first focus. This understanding is intended not merely to be something that can be tolerated or justified, it require a critical response from external parties to participate in providing support, reasons, recognition, appreciation, assessment, strengthening, and empathy in life unity as part of a nation integrally. Tolerance, recognition, and appreciation of other cultures and ethnicities will contribute in providing a sense of security and comfort, which in turn increase pride because there is self-confidence. Individual cultural identity is an important element of a self, that should be a vital part of the educational task in understanding their own culture. Understanding of one’s culture from the supporter of another cultures will be a significant contribution to a particular individual and society about which culture is part them, as an integral part of the first elements in the multiculturalism.

A benevolent government in facing a pluralistic society can perform a variety of policies, such as giving equal opportunities and the results even protective, especially for the “unequal” group/ethnicity. Respecting for ethnic and other cultures in another country, for example, require special assistance through preferential policies (Weiner, 1996: 441). The preferential policies, refer to the law/regulatory, administrative regulations, court, and other public interventions to provide the public goodness of  certain private goodness (such as enrolling for school/college, a job, a promotion, and so on). In the United States it is called the Affirmative Action or Compensation Policy, a designation for its supporters, while the opponents call it as the “Covert Discrimination Action”. Seymour Martin Lipset, the President of the American Political Science Association and the American Sociological Association, in his work  titled ‘The First New Nation: The United States in Historical and Comparative Perspective’, said that the controversy between egalitarian values ​​and individualism in America is more ease by the emergence of the opinion that the policy is solely to create a more fair competition to achieve “equality of opportunity” and “equality results” because black people have experienced discrimination in the past, for the future improvement (Lipset, 1994: xliv). In India this politic is often called a policy of “protective discrimination” or “reservation” (Weiner, 1996: 441).

The reason for affirmative action came from the principle of “color-blind” (a thesis which assumes that there is no law or public policy that is designed to treat people differently because of the skin color differences) and that the “color consciousness” is invalid, this opinion is wrong. Empirically it is obvious that in a “black and white” relationship, black people themselves admit that the color black is bad and ugly, although they tried to mitigate the concession effects by insisting that black is merely the skin. However, this consolation effort is useless or temporary. The fact is black poeple can not choose to not be black. So some black and white people suspect falsity of the “black is beautiful”, “black sweet” slogans and other similar things.

Boxil, the writer of Black and Social Justice, said that eventhough Russel dan  Brand (1979: 187) in their book Second Wind  had written a liberal slogan “I din’t notice“, eventhought it is said in a “sweet innocent” way, because the writer is white, he mostly express it in pride, the same as he notice it. However, Boxil objects that the affirmative action is related to Jim Crow’s policy that had been eliminated, because the puprose is to subordinating the black people who are labelled as lazy, irrational, and any other negative natures (Boxil, 2001:  104-106).

This differences perception is difficult to avoid, or the use of this terminology is often expressing the point of view and interests of the authors, because it is very difficult to get a truly neutral point of view. But with the recognition and appreciation for the cultural identity of other individuals are recognized as individuals and groups who have similar rights, is a vital element of educational tasks. Respect for one’s culture greatly contributed greatly to the cultural appropriation of a certain community members about where the culture is an integral part of a wider community, is a significant part of the multikultarilsme elements.

The third component is “looking at cultural diversity as something positive to be appreciated, accepted, and maintained in the community”. Blum (2001: 20-21) argues that the acceptance of cultural diversity as a manifestation of something good that is received and maintained to express that value can be realized more concretely. The cultural values expression can be done through three forms. First: by the acceptance of ethnic and cultural affiliation groups/nations to learn the culture of their origin, the ancestors of the ethnic group, nation, or civilization. Second, by studying the historical experience of the ethnic group. Historical experience, way of life, victories and backwards, art, literature, and the contributions to the nation they live in need to be discussed in details (Blum, 2001: 21). For Indonesia it can be studied the history of the struggle of ethnic contributions; Javanese, Sundanese, Batak, Moluccas, Minahasa, and China, and so on the nation’s efforts againts the Dutch colonial era. The supporters of multiculturalism (West), in response to such a statement explained, are generally agree on such lessons to be taught in schools (Saunders, 1982: 121-122). Human and the cultural supporters can be called as an “intercultural human”, which is influenced by more than one particular culture, although there are similarities, such as the ancestors’ culture, but by having his own rights they can adapt (Gudykunst and Kim, 1984: 229-235; Blum , 2001: 21).

Furthermore Gudykunst and Kim (1984: 237) explains that intercultural or cross-cultural person is a person who has reached a high level in the inter-cultural process in cognition, affection, and the unlimited behavior, yet developing beyond the psychological parameters of a culture. They have cultural sensitivities related to the ability to empathize with the culture. They also have a high degree of flexibility to the culture of others without having to sacrifice their own culture.

Third, the present ethnic cultures in groups that have been discussed. It is a dimension which is directly manifested in the young people themselves as members of the culture. Ethnic culture today, including; ethnic family rituals, food habits of the roles and interactions within the family, values​​, choice of music, philosophy of life, and others (Blum, 2001: 21). Department of Education in Indonesia, particularly in the Elementary and Secondary Education, in the recent dynamics of culture, has accept Moslem woman to wear hijab uniform in schools as part of individual rights as a relatively new development. Ironically such rights, for ethnic clothing/customs such as custom clothing of Sundanese, Javanese, Minang, Minahasa, and so on, is almost never had a consistent enculturation effort expressed in everyday life. Education units introducing such things are limited to kindergarten and elementary school, that only occur during special events such as Kartini Day, and almost never other than that day.

The reason that the government did not implement such freedom is their arguments regarding fairness, uniformity, and simplicity (Dikdasmen, 1984). The problems arise are: First, has the propriety and simplicity no place in the not uniformity? Second, in regard to the legitimacy of uniformity, is it allowed to eliminate the cultural identity owned? Thus, to grow the appreciation and acceptance of the diverse ethnic cultures often require the courage to be a part of that culture by allowing to express their culture straightforward and “responsibile” (Blum, 2001: 21-22). Larry May (2001: 156), professor of philosophy at Washington University in St. Louis, stated that the moral “responsibility” for racial crimes is borne by all community members, including those who are not directly commit the crime. It means that differences could be a treasure towards togetherness because it is very relevant with the mentioined keywords, “diversity” and “appreciation”. If Islam teaches the “rachmatan li al-‘alamin” a mediator for cultural differences (Jandra, 2003: 71-72), then Indonesia as the nation which motto is Bhineka Tunggal Ika (Unity in Diversity) must really appreciate the nation’s socio-cultural diversity, because it is absolute and reveals the historical, anthropological, sociological, and theological truth.

A strong tradition in our mind, though often misleading is that people have feeling as a community when they consider themselves equal to other members in a society (Blum, 2001: 25). Robert N. Bellah and his colleagues in Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life stated that the type of community needed in the United States is a pluralistic community, a community that includes a sense of attachment and relationships derived from events, circumstances, tasks, shared location and so on, mainly based on the experience of common humanity, yet recognizing and assessing the cultural differences and other differences as well (Bellah, 1985: 51). The need for ethnic diversity and cultural appreciation in a pluralistic society is also expressed by a U.S. historian, Michael Kammen in his work People of Paradox. Kammen (1977: 133) states that: “I do not believe that diversity is a characteristic of America. But I really believe that such wide diversity is a typical American “.

Multiculturalism as a social practice and government policy, has been more accepted in many countries as soomething essential. Berry et al (1998: 576) mentions that multiculturalism become a kind of culture and ideology in the cultural development and efforts to create a healthy society. Principally multiculturalism is intended to create a socio-political context that allows individuals to develop a healhty self-identity and mutually develop positive inter-group attitudes for the sake of democracy, human rights, and social welfare (Suparlan, 2002: 99; 2003: 35). The process toward the recognition is a steep hike, and attitude toward the reality of multicultural societies / nations have a fluctuation development throughout the history.

Multiculturalism, the past is seen as something that is not useful, and this anti-pluralism view was actually developing in Western countries. Dewey (Westbrook, 1991), even consider multiculturalism only creates a strong dividing line between groups in society, therefore what should had happened was assimilation. Dworkin (2001: 68) and Kymlicka (2002: 50-51) argues that from the aspect of human rights then multiculturalism, in addition to protecting individual rights, was also protecting the collective rights or the community culture. So, it is unreasonable if the liberals were scared that the collective rights demanded by a particular ethnic group is considered contrary to the individual rights. Both types of claims and rights can be seen as an effort to protect the stability of the community of the nation. Howard (2000: 315) and Gould (1993: 69-70) believes that multiculturalism include the so-called social democracy, which is a separate type of liberalism that bridges the gap anatara individual rights with community.

The social democracy is politically committed to provide and protect all human rights. This view is somewhat different from the definition often used as the standard of social democracy as “an ethos and way of life that is characterized by the removal of status differences in general” (Sartori, 1968: 113). Howard (2000: 316), further explains that the social democracy does not require removing economic differences are radical. Because removal of the blocking initiatives is necessary for economic progress on a collective and individual level, can even result in standards of living declined in general, as is the case in the former communist Eastern Europe. Social democracy is thus not abolish capitalism, but a radically improve it.

Canadian Prime Minister Trudeau, French descent, was a humanist political figures who had an advance vision for the future of international political elites. He was the pioneer who implement bilingualism in 1974, Constitution Act in 1982, and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982. The main content of the policy is to provide protection against fundamental freedoms, democratic rights, the right to live and work, legal rights, the use of ​​English and French as official language, including the rights of the language education for the visible minorities of Canada (Howard, 2000: 323-335, Supardan, 2002: 34).

In further development, the policy of multiculturalism is rapidly expanding. Multiculturalism has now evolved into a kind of beliefs, attitudes, and policies. Multiculturalism is not just a slogan, political rhetoric, or just a symbolic recognition of social reality wealth. Multiculturalism has become a true recognition of the identity of the group that supports and aligned with national identity. Supriya (2001:37) and Supardan (2002:35) argue that there are four possible combinations of multiculturalism. First; a country with heterogenous ethnic and cultural realities and accept the idea of multiculturalism. Second, a country with heterogenous ethnic and cultural realities, but government policy is likely to lead to monokulturalisme. Third, a country with homogenous ethnic/racial reality and maintain monoculturalistic policy. Fourth, a country with a degree of ethnic/racial homogenocity but very appreciate multiculturalism. United States, Canada, India, Auastralia, Malaysia are examples of the first group country. PRC is an example of the second group country. Israeli Jews who believe in racial superiority as the “Chosen People of God” can be included in the third category.

Which category is Indonesia? Theoretically, with the Bhineka Tunggal Ika (Unity in Diversity) motto, Indonesia is included in the first category, such as Canada and the United States with the slogan of E Pluribus Unum (Unity in Diversity). However, the Indonesia’s public policy practice, especially before the reformation era, tends to be in the second category (Coppel, 2003: 13; Suryadinata, 2003: 5-6). The phenomenon that seems still stereotyping, such as social prejudice, and racism still have strong influence in  Indonesia (Supriya, 2001: 29). For example, the racist insulting phrases such as “Padang Bengkok”, “Batak Rentenir dan Tukang Copet”, “Cina Licik”, “Jawa Koek”, and so on. As for the real evidence of racism can be seen by the eruption of “Sambas Tragedy” or “Sampit” in Borneo and the “Posso posso”, which recently occurred.

John Naisbitt (1994: 15), as a well knoen futurist, has predicted that the issue of race or ethnicity may be a boomerang for people who are less wise in doing their political policy. The minorities could be the victims of intimidation from the majority group, could be a threat to the development of democracy, and could cause an open conflict with fellow ethnic minority itself. Toffler (1992: 10). States:

In a mass industrial society, racism typically form the majority of the oppressed minority. This social pathology form is still a threat to democracy …. in the process of becoming domestic terrorism. In addition to the traditional conflict between the majority and the minority, the democratic government is also struggle in facing the open war between competing minority groups.

Alvin Toffler added that the minorities who have often considered insignificant or underestimated is important without ignoring the majority. Communities in any system and structure, whether it’s chemical system, the state, the computer, the traffic, if it’s too far gone through the traditional rules, it means violation and strange act. The reference for social justice today may be described as a fire in the husk, ready to explode if it is burned. Toffler (1992: 13-16) argues that a healthy democracy must therefore be tolerant to diversity as much as possible, and there is nothing unusual or particularly scary about the existence of such small groups such – as far as the political system remains balanced ..

Naisbitt (1994: 15) also gave similar responses; he was worried about some of the phenomena arised today. “Tribalism is reentered in the vocabulary of the world in 1993, especially with negative connotations and developed due to brutality, rape, massacres, and other forms of ethnic elimination in the former Yugoslavia”. Naisbitt added that in the economic globalization, many things would be universal. The concept of globalization is also still developing the things that are “tribal” to be more important and more powerful – another paradox that is an important aspect in the Global Paradox: “The more we become universal, the more tribal we act” which also means more and smaller parts (Naisbitt, 1994:20).

This opinion is in line with the history educators Boix-Mansila’s (2000: 391) opinion which can be analogous to Indonesia, that if the teaching of history has a multicultural base, it could at least reducing the social conflicts between ethnic-cultural, in addition to the students will have pride and the ethic and cultural existence will be recognized. They should not be the objects as in common history teaching. Students will have a strong sense of responsibility; avoid stereotyping and social prejudice that obstruct the national integration, in response to the appropriate awards because all groups have the national mission. It shows the importance of the discussion of multicultural learning based history, in addition to other factors that indicate how interesting the history lesson is because of its comprehensive nature and interdisciplinary approach.

Multiculturalism As A Certainty

Indonesian is a pluralist nation, maybe the most pluralist in the world. Indonesia has hundreds of ethnicities, religions, cultures, and customs, which is spread over 13,000 large and small islands, and speaking hundreds of regional languages (Koentjaraningrat, 1970, 21-33; Thohari, 2000: 129). This multidimensional pluralism has formed not only the beautiful and fascinating mosaic of Indonesia, but also prone to conflict. Inability to manage this pluralism can encourage a separatic social and political conflict of SARA (Suku, Agama, Ras, Antar golongan/Etnic, Religion, Race, Inter-group) that occurred lately.

Indonesia is not the only ethincally pluralistic nation. United States of America, for example, also known as the ethnically pluralistic nation. United States of America  has ​​”E pluribus Unum” as its tagline. Canasa has a policy of multiculturalism with “its mozaic“, the slogan of “unity in diversity” (Marger, 1985: 258, Supardan, 2002: 34), similar with “Bhineka Tunggal Ika” of Indonesia. Singapore called itself as a pluralist nation, despite the more dominant number of Chinese. Very few countries inhabited by only one ethnic. In short, pluralism is not exclusively Indonesian, it is a general phenomenon that can be found anywhere.

Multiculturalism is actually a socio-political policy imperative. Due to the fact that ethnic and cultural plurality is not only justified historically, sociologically, antopologis, but also theological. Additionally, pluralism is also a logical consequence of the urbanization and globalization waves occurring in the world. It should be noted that the tendency of ethnic exclusivism and fanaticism need to be avoided in this multiculturalism. Ethnic fanaticism always have the potential to trigger conflict and inherent in a multiethnic society, due to the stereotypes and other prejudice. The concern is how to prevent the occurence of the negative potential. It require an arrangement to make the needs and trurth of mulitculturalism become an ideological determination as Indonesian people in various ethnics, religious groups, cultural, languages and have a true feeling as a nation which is expressed wothout eliminating the “prmordial” identity that is rich in diversity.

The answer to address these issues is also not possible to eliminate the identity of the “primordial” to oppress the rich diversity of identity even with the intention of strengthening national unity. It is the same as “socially and culturally dead” (Magnis-Soeseno, 2000, 30). From the atrophy (shrinkage) of a real identity may not appear new identity. So it is not impossible to achieve unity of a nation which contain of various components by eliminating its pluralism. Indonesia nation may not possible to disslolving its identity as Javanese, Sundanese, Batak, Minang, Dayak, Bugis, Ambon, Islam, Hindu, Christian, Buddhist, and so on. It can not bring out the real identity of Indonesia, it destroys the true identity. Indonesia may not be built by people other than the Indonesian itself. Although ironically, many of our leaders and rulers took such shortcut. The national unity they create is simply a false unity that was built by the identity of the state empty rites (Piliang, 2001: 227; Magnis-Suseno, 2000: 31).

Individuals and groups in their role as human being have a unique identity that could never be replaced their personality, yet socially always trying to match all the knowledge and perception of reality. A pluralistic nation should be able to understand what is the nature of primordial. If only someone had roots in a social environment that includes primordial, then he works according to the weight and responsibilities of each, it does not mean primordial. Because the socio-cultural embodiment is a requirement of one’s wholeness, personally and psychiccally. In contrast to a primordial attachment (regular) which then become primordialistic (irregular) beyond the primordial circle, in other words become “exclusive”, someone that identify themselves only by one of the primordial elements. It is clear desocialization, a social impoverishment because a person no longer able to feel solidarity with other people as human beings in the unity of the nation, has happened to that person. This kind of attitude can even be a phanatic primordial if one of the primordial attachments, for example on one race or religion, become so dominant. Families and the general dominant values ​​eventually become ignored. This kind of primodialism can be considered as the “psychic pathology” when it comes to an individual, and it is called “social phatology” when it comes to group (Horton & Hunt, 1999: 195-197). Such primordialism is a regression, a rejection of openness.

In a glance, in multiculturalism there are matters that may cause anxiety towards the relationship between religion and culture. This concern can be answered in a simple fact: that religion is a permanent and universal God’s creation, while culture is a temporal and spatial man-made. Traced back, the concerns came from the fears about theological relationship between the sacred and the profane (Eliade, 2001: 274-275; 2002: 211). In existence, when to the God (religion) is understood and internalized as the ultimate goal which emerging what is called the “actualization”, the actualization of God’s consciousness will become familiar with the behavior of dualism between the sacred and the profane. Thus religion as a sacred substance or essence of culture (Abdullah, 2003: xii). Ironically, not all religious believers understand this issue correctly. They have phobia in understanding local culture. The power of formal religious hegemony backed by the authority of local culture, including subjecting orthodoxy traditional art vis-à-vis the religious authorities. Kuntowijoyo (2003: 16), historian and culturalist of Gajah Mada University who are concerned about the phenomenon, explained that not a few people who considered that religion has become the “bulldozer” of cultural regarding the plurality of cultural expression. In fact local cultural traditions are loaded with philosophical messages, in the aspect of spiritual, moral, mentality, and the social criticism and messages (Abdullah, 2003: xiii). The art analysts argue that art is the only region that is difficult to be co-opted by the state’s institutions (Mack, 2001: 7-11; Dickie, 1971: 27; Peransi, 1985: 8-9). Art is an expression of life and living as well as the source of inspiration for the movement of spiritual, moral, and social in loosen up the social tension. Behind the local institutions limitation, art also contains a universal meaning that can be parallel with the virtue of religion for human sincerity.

Historically and anthropoligically, the ethnic and cultural pluralismin Indonesia is very conducive for the implementation of a multicultural approach. Indonesia, with its Bhineka Tunggal Ika (Unity in Diversity), is absolute and has a historical truth can not be denied since the time of the kingdom. Majapahit kingdom had political relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms such as Champa, Sham, Burma which expressed in the “mitreka satata” slogan which means “friendship is based on mutual respect”. Empu Tantular described the religious life so well in his essay Sutasoma with the phrase of “bhinneka tunggal ika tan hana darma mangrua” which means “although different, we are one, because no religion has different purpose” (Darmodihardjo, 1985: 17). Empu Tantular already seated that as the philosophy of the kingdom/government of his era.

Anthropologically, Indonesia that is rich in the diversity of ethnic, culture, religion, language, customs and traditions that live in a pluralistic society, depends on the primordial local genius primordial (Sumardjo, 2002: 23). The primordial local Genius primordial is determined by the genesis if the community livelihoods’ infrastructure. According to Kluckhohn (1953), there are seven elements of culture, whether it is small, simple-isolated, complex or large-advanced. The seven elements are language, technology system, economic system, social organization, knowledge system, religion, and art (Koentjaraningrat, 1986: 83). Through the hundreds years evolution and transformation, if only we are willing to learn, then our political and social organizations in national life, then all its flaws will appear in front of us. If this indeed is happening, it is conceivable that the stagnation in the history of consciousness can not be avoided, because the relevance awareness is the beginning of the quality of life. In any profession and social roles, if the “sense of relevance” is occuring, its presence could be alienated from the era necessity and the society demands (Abdullah, 2001: 218, 260).

No one has hope ethnic conflict will continue to be a dark cloud for the future of Indonesian politics. All people does not like being the fire in the chaff, the ethnic elements can burn down any political buildings. Even though the ethnic conflict was centered in Kalimantan and Maluku, but it remains concerned that it will sporadically spread to another areas, especially densely populated urban areas. Our expectations, this ethnic pluralism can be a the bond of urban people, especially in regions with a powerful criminal gang as an economic base migrants (Suparlan, 2001: 2-3; Piliang, 2002: 232). Abdullah (2001: 93-94) even argues that social riots or social anarchy that we experienced lately, is a harsh reflection of the plural communities in the “silence” without the protection system of local leadership and a healthy civil society and functional.

Once we understand some of the constraints/obstacle in the effort to achieve a harmony multicultural society, it is better that we also understand the opportunities and developments in the world in general and Indonesia in particular. The preceding discussion has mentioned that, “More than 95% of the world’s countries are ethnically heterogeneous … According to some estimates, there are close to 5,000, diverse ethnic group in the world” (Jandt, 1998: 419). In fact this heterogeneity in reality did not accept or reject the multiculturalism policy. According to Supriya (2001: 37), there are four possible combinations of multiculturalism, which are:

First, the state of ethnic and cultural reality of heterogeneous and receive ideas and implement policy of multiculturalism. For example; Canada, USA, Australia, Brazil, Mexico, Malaysia. Second, countries with ethnically and culturally heterogeneous reality, but government policies are likely to lead to monokulturalisme, such as the PRC and France. Third, countries with ethnic and cultural realities are relatively homogeneous, and its policies are likely to lead to monokulturalisme, ie Israel. Fourth, the state with the reality of ethnic and cultural homogeneity, but the policy of his government implemented a policy of multiculturalism, for example Japan.

Indonesia has the motto of “Bhineka Runggal Ika” as a philosophy of life of the state and can be categorized into the first category. However, considering by the government implementation, especially during Orde Baru dan Orde Lama era, Indonesia should be categorized in the second category, because but in reality Indonesia was more likely to uniformity (uniformity) culture despite the “Bhineka Tunggal Ika/Unity in diversity”. Wiriaatmadja (2002: 221) call that diversity in unity at the frist five decades of the nation’s independence has more emphasis on the similarity and unity aspects that resulted in the erosion of the local culture quantity and quality especially the regional language lost its the pragmatical use. While Abdullah (1999: 19; 2001: 72) said that nationalism during the Orde Baru era had been taken over by the state and had lack of respecttowards the local culture indentity development which demand for regularity and equality in the nation-family.

ct for local cultural identity pengembanagan demanding fairness and equality in the family of nations.

Nowadays, multiculturalism is actually very possible to to grow especially with the enactment of the Local Autonomy Law. Because multiculturalism demands the development of local culture and idea naturally that rich with their own uniqueness. All elements could not be appreciated by a centralized approach (top down), but by developing a decentralized bottom-up approach. Through the decentralized development of these potentials, it is expected that the idea, culture, religion, art, and language, can ha a significant creative response toward the demands of societal transformation that occurs (Ash’ari, 2003: 234-235).

The Multiculturalism Role in Improving the Nation’s Integration

It may sounds a bit strange if someone struggling to achieve independence through national culture. Cabral (1973: 41), an independence hero of Guinea-Bissau Africa, the writer of Return to the Source, asserts that culture is an element of resistance to foreign domination: “the strong manifestation in the ideology or ideal of the physical reality and the historical society it is dominated”. Cabral (1979: 143), in another book tittled Unity and Struggle, mentioned that culture is a vital element in the process of liberation. National liberation is expressed as a cultural act, a political expression of the people who are doing the fighting. Culture also has a positive influence on people and their condition.

Frantz Fanon (1979: 143), an Algerian soldier who is a respected psychiatrist and had achieved the country’s independence, in his book The Wretched of the Earth, said that

… the national culture claim in the past is not only able to rehabilitate the nation and serve as a justification for the hope of the national culture’s future. In the level of soul-affective balance, colonialism should be responsible for the significant changes in the indigenous …. Persistence in following the extinct cultural forms is a demonstration of nationality; yet the demonstration has now moved bacward to the law of inertia. No offensive and no redefinition of the relationship. The concentration on the core of our culture is more witerhing, silent, and empty.

A similar also conveyed by Edward W. Said (1996; 13), a humanist intellectual, the pioneer of Postcolonial Theory and world-leading cultural critics of the Middle East through  his work titled Culture and Imperialism. He object the arguments that the colonial culture and national identity is still the single entities and pure, yet destroyed by the West. Said (1996, 14) said:

… Culture is a kind of theater where various political and ideological power are interrelated. Despite being a sphere quite and polite Apollonia, culture become a battleground in which the causes are obvious and conflicting …. and also the Western opinion that culture is considered more important, seperating it from the everyday life. As a result, most professional humanist are unable to set an association between the protracted dirty severity and the practices such as slavery, colonial and racial oppression, and imperial conquest on one hand, and the poetry, fiction, and philosophy of society on the other.

 

The questions related to the above explanation; Could heterogeneous cultures (plural) in the nation be a positive force particularly in promoting national integration? So far we are used to justify a sociologist Emile Durkheim (1964: 79) opinion in his masterpiece The Division of Labor in Society, that similarity is a source of social solidarity creation which is driven by the collective consciousness (especially by mechanical solidarity, which is different from the organic solidarity). Mechanical solidarity is based on a “collective consciousness” which refers to the totality of beliefs and sentiments common to the average citizen. So, it depends on the individuals who have similar characteristics, beliefs, and the same normative pattern.

In contrast to the organic solidarity, the solidarity emerged because of the increasing labour division, resulting in a society structure with high dependence to each other. This interdependence is increasing as a result of the increasing specialization in the labor division, which also result in a more exciting differences among individuals (Johnson, 1986; 184-185). Thus the solidarity emerge as the result of the individual differences that remodel the collective consciousness. Organic solidarity is basically possible to achieve solidarity and integration of the nation Because of the level of dependence among individuals and ethnic highly increasing. The statement is also in line with the example of the society awareness needed in the United States, written by Robert N. Bellah (1985: 117) in the book of Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life, that our concept of inter- ethnic/racial community itself should allow the recognition of differences. The tdradition in our mind that is powerful but misleading about community is that the human only feel as a community when they Consider themselves “similar” to the other members of the community. However, Bellah (1985: 118) confirms that the type of community needed in the United States is a pluralistic community, a community that includes a sense of attachment and relationships derived from events, cırcumstances, tasks, shared location and so on – and mainly based on the commonon humanitarian experience along – but by recognizing and assessing cultural anothed differences and types of differences as well.

Another studies on the role of multicultural in the nation’s integration, according to Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), mentioned that at least multicultural has the role in: (1) promote harmonious society, (2) realizing the appropriate cultural relationship model, (3) respect for diversity, (4) improve the appearance of social prejudices, (5) respecting diversity and developing democracy (http://eric-web. tc. Columbia.edu / alerts / she 35.html)

Matile (1996), in an effort to actualizing harmonious life in a society, based on the research results stated that “… these strategies offer opportunities to recognize and appreciate diversity; instill sensitivity; and appreciate the contribution of the varied ethnic, linguistic, and cultural groups of the city “. Efforts to recognize, appreciate, and embed the sensitivity towad the socio-cultural diversity are based on the following reason. First, the principle of learning multiculturalism, highly try to understanding different cultures. Hence the desire to learn about the cultures of different ethnicity. Second, the principle of multiculturalism encourage a life of respecting ethnics diversity and different cultures. Therefore, if these concept is implemented consistently, it almost certainly will be able to reduce the horizontal conflicts between ethnic groups that might occur. It means that by treating all local cultures/ethnicities fair and equal, there will be a very littel possibility of a particular culture dominance that can hinder the development of the minority cultures (Blum, 2001: 15-16).

Another studies on the role of multiculturalism to actualize the appropriate or harmonious model of cultural relationship, O’Mara (1996), based on research on a number of Hollywood movies in relation to education, suggested “ Show how entertainment media can support educational themes; concepts include the idea of a subculture, cultural values, and cultural model for appropriate interpersonal ” So in this case, through a multicultural it can be seen how the performance media can support the education, sub-culture, the developing cultural as part of the interpersonal relationships.

The statement can be understood as the entertainment films is basically requires three aspects at the minimum, the aspect of expression capabilities, analyzing, and self transformation (Sitorus, 2002: xvi). The development of expression capabilities is  associated with the cultural flexibility that universally accepted. That means the presentation of the movie, in the analogy of a particular culture, eventhough it is different with the surrounding culture, must have a felxible and highly adaptive value properties. This adaptive and flexible values would encourage easy acceptance of those values ​​by the general public.

The development ability to “analyze” aspect associated with the “fluency” aspect in the search for causes and implications. Thus the fluency aspect is an important part in the characterization of cultural creativity in exploring its rich potential. While the aspect of “transformation” is related to originality. In the sense of the ability to give meaning based on its flair and instinct. Stanislavsky in An Actor prepares suggested: “Do not lose yourself on the stage, and always based on personal act. As soon as you lose yourself on stage, then you will no longer be able to live up to your role wholy “(Stanislavsky, 1989; 189). If an actor’s transformation ability tarnsformasi is consudered to a “cultural performances”, then make that the culture to attract others to learn more as it has its own unique and original characteristics.

Multicultural, in another part, can contribute to appreciate cultural differences. Padersen (1995), a counselor who conducted research in elementary school, the research findings suggeted that: “a base for understanding cultural bias, and provides practical strategic to promote child development in a multicultural society“. Pedersen argues that multicultural learning is very useful in understanding the cultural biases that exist in society. Because it is possible that what students heard from the public about the culture of a particular ethnic is turned out to be very different after they learned about that ethnic culture. Through multicultural learning, cultural bias can be avoided if it is learned early in school.

Multicultural learning can also affect the effort to appreciate the cultural differences, as well as the trigger in improving students’ achievement. Ploumis-Devick (1996), a researcher who conducted research in the United States elementary schools, has research findings which indicate that Provides general backround on cultural diversity and its impact; descriptions of successful programs; and strategies, activities, and resources for classroom use. This result is actually not so surprising, because by introducing and teaching students a variety of cultures that exist around the community will make them know and learn the culture, which in turn will appreciate the cultural diversity. Multicultural learning also tried to demonstrate the existence of culture that requires recognition in the social environment. If the statement associated Maslow’s opinion (1954: 72), known as the theory of “Hierarchy of Needs”, it can be categorized as the needs of social “appreciation“.

Multiculturalism is also on the other hand may reduce the prejudice against other ethnic cultures. Ponterotto (1995), conducted research which lead to the conclusion that learning multiculturalism contribute to: Describes theoris to explain the increase of of insidents of intergroup conflict and the role of the teacher in multicultural awareness and prejudice prevention programs“. Learning multiculturalism may be a preventive act of the increasing prejudice and intergroup conflict, because through multicultural learning students learn to appreciate different ethnic cultures, assessing their advantages and disadvantages, and ultimately they will accept that there is no perfect culture and have absolutely no merit or benefit. In fact, according to the group of “functionalist culture” or a functional theory of culture, Malinowski wrote in his monumental latest work of A scientific Theory of culture and Other Essays that all the cultural activities  is actually intended to satisfy a number of human needs (Kaberry, 1957: 82).

Multicultural culture also serves to unite the nation’s culture. The research conducted by Ravitch (1996) examined multicultural perspective in relation to the unity of American culture. He explained that Compare California’s pluralistic and New York’s particularistic approaches; argues for an education that appreciates diversity and supports commitment to a unified American  culture. Through a comparative approach to the pluralistic New York and California communities, they assume that the multicultural education that respect for diversity and support responsibility is important for a united American culture. Multicultural culture play a role in the efforts to unite the nation, according to their state motto E pluribus Unum or Unity in Diversity, which is similar Bhineka Tunggal Ika of Indonesia (mergers, 1985: 258; McLemore: 1980: 35; Supardan 2002: 34 ).

The Important of Multicultural Education

The term “multicultural education” is a philosophical concept that builds on the ideals of freedom, justice, equality, equality, and human dignity as acknowledged in various documents such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations. It reminds us to prepare students in educating them to be responsible in the world that are interdependent. Thus they can also recognize the role of the school to develop and assess the attitudes essential for a democratic society, particularly in assessing the cultural differences and pluralism reflected in the students, the community, as well as their teachers. It was the challenge in all formats of discrimination in schools and communities through the promotion of democratic principles of social justice.

According to Mihhael (1994) in general the multicultural education activity is based on four objectives:

• to remedy ethnocentrism in the traditional curriculum;
• build understanding among racial and cultural groups and appreciation of different cultures;
• to defuse intergroup tensions and conflicts; and
• to make the curricula relevant to the experiences, cultural traditions, and historical contributions of the nation’s diverse population.

Furthermore Mihhael (1994) concluded that multicultural education is basically:

Multicultural education is a progressive approach for transforming education that holistically critiques and addresses current shortcomings, failings, and discriminatory practices in education. It is grounded in ideals of social justice, education equity, and a dedication to facilitating educational experiences in which all students reach their full potential as learners and as socially aware and active beings, locally, nationally, and globally. Multicultural education acknowledges that schools are essential to laying the foundation for the transformation of society and the elimination of oppression and injustice

Thus in multicultural education, there are at least seven that have 7 special meaning, namely: (1) Multicultural education is anti-racist education; (2) Multicultural education is the basis of education, (3) Multicultural education is important for all students, (4 ) multicultural education is able to permeate/percolate; (5) multicultural education is education for social justice; (6) multicultural education is a process; (7) multicultural education is an education with critical  attitude”(Julia Scherba de Valenzuela, pp. 307 – 308).

In Short multicultural education can be summarized in three main objectives, which are: (1) self transformation, (2) schools and education transformation, (3) society transformation.

Self Transformation

As an educator, I have a dual responsibility to engage in a continuous process and critical to test how my prejudices, distortions, and assumptions inform my teaching and [with] so affecting educational experience of the students know about me. I have a responsibility to myself to learn and understand the lens through which I understand the people and the happening around me. Only when I have a sense for how my own perceptions developed in association with my life experience I can truly understand the world around me and to effectively navigate the relationship with my colleagues. I also have a responsibility to my students to work towards the elimination of prejudice me, which is achieved by testing my teaching style, and learn again how my own identity affects their learning experience. To be an effective multicultural education, and of course as an effective educator, I have to be in a process of constant self-examination and transformation.

Schools and Education Transformation

Multicultural education demands a critical examination of all aspects of education. Multicultural aspects of school transformation include the following:

1. Student-Centered Education
2. Experience of the students should be brought forward in the classroom, making learning more active, interactive, and enganging.
3. Traditional teaching approaches and models of education should not be constructed to examine how they contribute to and support the institutional suppression systems.
4. Emphasizes practical knowledge as to follow the road (albeit informal) should be directed and critically tested.
5. All aspects of teaching and learning schools should be focused back on their offerings to the students themselves instead of standarizing test scores by ranking.
6. Should emphasize the placement of the critical aspects and creative thinking, learning skills, and social awareness as well as facts and figures.
7. Education should provide all students with the same opportunity to reach their potential as students / learners.
8. Education should be flexible enough to allow for the diversity of learning styles present in each class.
9. Multicultural curriculum
10. All curriculum should be examine for its accuracy and completeness.
11. All subjects were informed of the study have diverse perspectives – this is linked to accuracy and completeness.
12. Inclusive curriculum “means also include the aspirations of the students in the classroom.
13. Concepts such as “rules” and “classic literature” should be reconsidered with the idea for the accuracy and completeness, to prove the mistakes of the perception that only a certain literature that can be used correctly.
14. the curriculum should reflect the diversity of learning styles each class.
15. Including Education Materal and Media
16. Educational materials must include various perspectives and aspirations.
17. The students should be encouraged to think critically about the material and the media: Whose voice they hear? Whose voice is not heard? Why do companies produce the film? Is the author’s bias allowed for him or his written?
18. School Climate and Classroom Support
19. The teachers should be better prepared to provide a more positive classroom climate for all students.
20. The whole school culture must be closely examined to determine how they were able to advance and support the societal conditions that are emphasized.
21. The administrative hierarchy in school must be tested to assess whether they have produced apositive teaching environment for all teachers.
22. The teachers and administrators should be responsible for practices perceived as racist, sexist, heterosexist, classist, or discrimination in other ways.

1. Continuous Assessment or Evaluation
2. Educators and educational researchers should continue to examine the emphasis on standardized test scoring and develop more alternative for measuring student’s “achievement”, “ability”, “or” potential. “
3. Sustainability evaluation measures must be taken to measure the success of a new program that is intended to give more opportunities to the traditional group and the under representation at universities and colleges immediately.
4. The Society Transformation

Finally, the purpose of education is to support the increasing multicultural and proactive society changing and to the application and the maintenance of justice and equality rights. This is because, as transformation schools need to transform a society that put a lot of stock (inventory) in educational attainment, level, and test scores. Indeed the particularly dominant capitalistic capability mental in the U.S. (and continues to increase, with the “help” of the United States, the world) multicultural education aims to challenge, shake, expose, and critique. Itis the exact reason that it is not enough to continue working in a sick society, press, and outdated system to make changes, when the problems in education are themselves disease that lasts for a system controlled by the elite economists.

A person does not need to learn closely to recognize that the school is consistently provide advanced treatment to the privileged and the continuing the efforts with very little hope of upward mobility. The “informal” work follow the path, standardized testing, the quality of opposition in the school and cross-district, and practices of other live-industrial age model school. Only the terminology has changed – and the practice is not in accordance with it purpose in the begining.

Educators, educational theorists experts, researchers, activists, and everyone should continuou to practice and implement the multicultural education and the principles of learning both inside and outside of the classroom. We must not allow the knowledge that most of the people who work the school is intended both to lead us to assume that we are immune to the school and public unequality pressure. We have to ask questions that can not be asked/requested. We have to investigate and deconstruct the power structures and privileging it serves to maintain the steady state at a given moment.

In some ways, the multicultural education using self transforamtion as a metaphor and the starting point for the society transformation. Ultimately, justice and equality rights at schools can and should means for justice and equal rights in society. Only then the purpose of multicultural education is may be reached.

Multicultural Education Approaches

One way to “define” multiculturalism is truly without presenting a concrete definition of the term to define how to incorporate it in the classroom. It may seem a bit odd, but the discussion about the different approaches to multicultural education can explain the issue of “multiculturalism” as a whole. Following article presents three different models of multicultural education. Wendy Schwartz was the first to present two approach of explanation and and simple, then show how they can work together to create the third approach. The three models are: (1) programs that focus on information, (2) programs that focus on what students should learn, (3) programs that focus on social issues.

a. Programs that focus on information

This program is the most common type in multicultural education, teaching is more focused around cultural differences group by adding a few short readings to a standard curriculum or by placing some (a few) class about cultural heroes cultural celebrations and holiday activities. The program includes a deeper multicultural materials which covers several issues, including materials and profound ideas about the diverse sociocultural problem.

An example of this program is a study of specific minorities ethnics (in the United States it is the study of the ethnic of Indians, blacks, and women’s studies) which  were studied from different reviews. In some cases, a multicultural program changed focus throughout the school. Afrocentric certain schools or independent Asiacentric is a sample of the complete program, some schools also have single-gender classrooms where girls are taught separately from the boys, not a mixture of gender order.

b. Programs that Focus on How the Students Learn

Many multicultural education programs also try to bring about school achievement in cultural diversity or linguistic, common among minority students. This program, which sometimes put the multicultural information into the curriculum, can take many forms. For example, teaching about the students’ background to increase their interest in learning. Some use of the teaching methods have been shown to work well with the students who, in cultural-basic, have a specific learning styles. Some bilingual or bicultural programs, such as language courses, build on students’ culture and the culture of African-Americans and Asian-Americans. Or they can acquire specialized knowledge and science program for the minority and female students.

As the purpose of this program is to help certain students to learn, such as the students who are high achievers. Moreover, the purpose of this program is to assist variety of student in learning, such as the high achiever students, this program can be viewed as compensation or equalization, and, indeed, they are often nearly the same as the program which focus is nonmulticultural.

c. The programs focused on social issues

This development programs on social issues is trying to improve the education received at the school and the political and cultural climate in school. For example, they try to improve the toelerance of the heterogeneous cultural and racial tolerance. This program encourages the employment of minority teachers, teaching students how to be more tolerant, and teach in a way that let the students work together to learn and solve problems (“cooperative learning”).

This type of multicultural education emphasizes “human relations” in all forms, and using the parts of the other two types of programs. To reduce racial tensions, the curriculum can emphasize the positive social contribution of cultural and ethnic groups and cultures, as well as using several different methods of teaching. The program can also promote learning various languages ​​(“multilingualism”). They can emphasize cultural pluralism and equality in society as a whole, not just in the school. The students may ask question, in order to use the critical thinking, about racism, sexism, and another aspect that exists in American society to prevent all people to be treated the same, or to examine the issue various different view points, of their own or their traditional culture. However, others may use cooperative learning approach and shared decision-making skills in order to prepare the students to become socially active citizen.

The description of multicultural approach here refers to both the curriculum and the school atmosphere among the students. They also consider issues such as gender differences, and cooperative learning to get into the game. Thus all the Schwartz’s programs are oriented at guidance, and require cooperation among teachers and administrators to achieve their educational goals.

In the Varieties of Multicultural Education, An Introduction, Gary Burnett suggested the three “typologies” that very similar to Schwartz’s program:

Multicultural Education Typology

The multicultural education, in any way, can not satisfy all matters and all people. Several attempts have been made ​​to detail the various educational strategies that fall under the broad umbrella of multicultural education – to develop a “typology.” A typology can furnish a useful framework to think about multicultural education, giving educators – and the other – a clear understanding of what people mean by the term. Two of the most beneficial uses of typology, albeit different from each other, has been developed by James A. Bank (1994), and by Sleeter and Grant (1993). The description of both typology, this essence resulted a third typology in order to provide a brief summary of how multicultural education is applied in the United States. It is intended for educators, policy makers, and others who are just begin to consider the option of multicultural education; the essence of the future will be pointing more to the fore the issue. Here, the multicultural education presents a typology are the programs consist of programs which can be broadly divided into three categories, according to their main emphasis. Each of these is discussed below.

a. The Content-oriented Programs

As the controversy in New York and California suggested, efforts oriented in the content is a variation of the most common and easily recognized multicultural education. Their main purpose includes the content about cultural group differences in curriculum and educational materials in order to increase students’ knowledge about the sorrounding group. In its simplest form, this type of program added some multiculturalism to the standard curriculum, may combine/inserta short reading or something about the cultural heroes celebrations and vacations within the school year. In addition to content-area version, the program took a more careful approach, adding a lot of multicultural materials and themes to the curriculum.

The more experienced version is actively changing the shape of the curriculum. According to the Bank (1994), this program has three objectives: first, to develop multicultural content across disciplines; second, to include/insert a various perspectives and different points of view in the curriculum; third, for the rules transformation, which ultimately develop a new paradigm for curriculum.

As usual, the programs often taking the form of Sleeter and Grant (1993), which is called the “single-group studies “; common examples include the study of black people, other ethnic and women’s studies program. In some cases, single-group study programs can play a major role in the the whole school transformation, such as, for example in the development of the independent Afrocentric schools (Shujaa, 1992). Some schools also have created single-gender classes, designed specifically for meeting the education needs of female students who need to get away from the distractions of a mixed-gender situation. Afrocentric schools and single-gender classes are thus combined elements of programs oriented aspect of the programs content that are student-oriented, which will be described below.

2. Student-oriented Program

Considering that multicultural education is an attempt to reflect the growing diversity of classes in a heterogeneous nation, many programs are exceeding the curricular revision specifically pointed to academic needs, which are carefully described (defined) the groups of students, often by the minority students. Particularly as Bank (1994) notes, while the program curriculum try to improve the body of knowledge about ethnic, cultural, and gender groups, the student-oriented program is intended to improve student academic performance of this group, even when they do not involve an extensive changes the curriculum content.

As Sleeter and Grant (1993) described, many of these programs are not designed to change the shape of the curriculum or the social context of education, but to help the diverse students, culturally or linguistically, to make the transition into mainstream education. To do this, these programs often depict the variety of language and cultural background of their original.

As a result, the student-oriented programs may take many forms, some of them are not in particular considered as the type of multicultural education. Bank (1994) outlines four categories of the program: (1) the program that use research into the cultural-based learning styles in an attempt to determine the style of teaching by using a particular group of students, (2) bilingual or bicultural program, (3) language programs that build the language and culture of African-American students, (4) science education and science program for the minority or female students.

As the result  – and because they are trying to help students make the transition into the mainstream – student-oriented programs can be seen as a counterweight/compensation in nature: in fact they are almost indistinguishable from the compensation programs/the counter-program which may not multicultural in their emphasis.

3. Social-oriented Program

The program is looking to change the culture of both education and political contexts of education, directed not only to the simply improve academic achievement and to increase multicultural body of knowledge, but has a much broader impact in improving racial and cultural tolerance and reduce irregularities.

According to Bank (1994), this program category includes not only program designed to reorganize and eliminate the schools’ diversity, but the program is also designed to improve all kinds of contacts between races: programs to encourage minority teachers, anti-diversion program, and teamwork study programs. Just as Sleeter and Grant (1993) describes it, this type of multicultural education emphasizes the “human relations” in all of its forms, and includes some of the characteristics of the other two types of the programs: (1) that it is may require curriculum revision in order to emphasize the positive social contribution regarding teh ethnic and cultural groups, (2) the use of research on learning styles to improve student achievement on the one side, and reducing racial tensions in the classroom on the other side.

However, Sleeter and Grant (1993) also expanded the types of multicultural education to include a lot of broader spectrum of programs that are socially-oriented and the social activity goals. Their programs refer to, which is very little common- and that can further be controversial – emphasizing cultural pluralism and justice in American society as a whole, not just in the school. In order to reach their goals, such programs may use a number of approaches. Many people emphasize the application of critical thinking skills to a critique of racism, sexism, and other repressive aspects of American society, some of which emphasize multilingualism; others try to examine the issues from a large number of different viewpoints of the main culture; while otehrs may be able to use cooperative learning approaches and decision-making skills in order to prepare the students to be participatory social beings.

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