Oleh: Kunto Sufianto
INDEPENDENCE revolution or physical revolution (1945-1949) constitutes an important and decisive period in the history of Indonesian struggle. The incidents that occurred in that period gave great significance towards the continuity and the existence of Indonesian people. In that period Indonesian people tried to free themselves from the grip of the Japanese and the Dutch military occupation. The realization of the effort above was the proclamation of Indonesia’s independence on August 17th 1945, declared by Soekarno and Mohamad Hatta on behalf of Indonesian people. The proclamation did not mean that the struggle of Indonesian people had ended, because afterwards the Dutch came back to Indonesia and committed two aggressions in 1947 and 1948.
Actually the struggle of Indonesian revolution occurred throughout the archipelago, including in Garut. However, until now the struggle of Garut people has not yet revealed. In this paper, I would like to reveal the struggle of Garut people against the Japanese troops in October 1945 and in the period of the Dutch occupation (19471948), I would like to reveal the struggle of Garut people that consisted of indigenous, Chinese, Arab, and Pakistani. The struggle discussed in 1947-1948 deals with governmental affairs, social-economic life, and educational activities in Garut. By assessing their activities, we can conclude their response towards the foreign challenges that come from the outside. Before I express the problems above, it will be better to depict the origin of Garut and Garut city under the Japanese military occupation 1942-1945.
The Establishment of Garut
On February 16th 1813, Raffles as lieutenant governor in Indonesia, issued the decree over the re-establishment of Limbangan regency with its capital in Suci.[1] Suci did not meet the requirements for a regency capital, because its location and area were narrow for city extension. Therefore the regent of Limbangan, Adipati Adiwijaya (1813-1831), formed a committee to look for a more suitable place for regency capital. At first, the committee found out a location about 3 km east of Suci, namely Cimurah that had suitable plain for the capital. However, in that area clear water was scarce, then the plan was cancelled.[2]
Then the committee looked for the place to the west of Suci (about 5 km) and found a suitable location for the capital. The location had good plain, fertile soil, and was surrounded by mountains, namely mount Cikuray, mount Papandayan, mount Guntur, mount Galunggung, mount Talaga Bodas, and mount Karacak. When the committee found a spring (small lake) covered by thorny underbrush (marantha), one of the hands of a committee member was scratched to bleeding. In the entourage, there was also the white man, who asked the one of the committee “Why is your hand bleeding?” He answered that his hand was scratched (kakarut). The white man imitated that word, and because his tongue was not fluent, he mentioned “gagarut”.[3]
Since that time the workers who came along with the entourage of the committee called the thorny underbrush as “Kigarut” and its lake was called “Cigarut”.[4] Given the finding of that place, the location and its surrounding was popularly known as Garut. That name was officially accepted by the regent of Limbangan, Adipati Adiwijaya, who then stipulated the name of Garut to be the name of Limbangan regency capital.[5] In 1821, when the facilities for the capital were completed, like the residence of regent, assistant resident building, mosque, etc. then the capital of Limbangan regency moved from Suci to Garut.[6]
On July l 1913, based on governor general decree May 7th 1913 no 60,[7] the name of Limbangan regency was officially changed to Garut regency and its capital was called Garut. Garut had 3 villages, namely Desa Kota Kulon, Desa Kota Wetan, and Desa Margawati.[8] Garut regency consists of 9 districts, namely Garut Kota, Bayongbong, Cibatu, Tarogong, Leles, Balubur Limbangan, Cikajang, Bungbulang, and Pameungpeuk.[9]
Garut City Under the Occupation of Japanese Military Government 1942-1945
After Nederland lndie Government surrendered to the Japanese on March 8th 1942 in Kalijati Subang, the Dutch colonial government in Indonesia thus ended. After Bandung was occupied by Japanese troops, then by mid March Japanese troops entered Garut via Garut station, Cibatu station, and Jalan Raya Tarogong by various vehicles, and on foot. The Japanese troops were not merely Japanese, but there were also Koreans (Manchukuo). At first, they gathered in Pengkolan in front of Ek Bouw and Mie Hoa shops, and then they occupied some strategic places, namely Hotel Papandayan, occupied by Japanese officers and kempetai, assistant resident building occupied bh kempetai, societet Intra Montes building accupled by soldiers, MULO school building occupied by kempetai and the place for internees, Cipanas (hot spring baths) was turned into resting place or was used for sick and wounded the Japanese, and Hotel Ngamplang occupied by Japanese civilian. Japanese civilians were popularly known as Sakura Japanese, because they always used emblem of Sakura flower on their shirts.[10] Besides that, they also took over all companies, plantations, and offices previously belonging to the Dutch.
The change of social-politics began to manifest themselves after the Japanese had taken control Garut fully. The Japanese troops, who very kind at first, turned to be arrogant and they started to oppress the people with various of regulations that curbed the people’s freedom. The regulations that must be obeyed, especially salute to Japanese flag (Hinomaru), the obligation to sing of Japanese national anthem (Kimigayo), moment of silence (Mokuto), curtsying to the Japanese emperor Tenno Heika towards Tokyo, and prohibition to sing Indonesian National anthem Indonesia Raya. One of regulations that opposed strongly by Moslem people generally in Indonesia was the obligation to perform seikerei by bending the body towards Japanese emperor in Tokyo. The reason is that regulation was equal to ruku when Moslems pray for God (shalat).[11]
The Japanese military government mobilized all economic activities in Garut city for the sake of their importance. The people were obliged to collect agricultural products like rice, corn, and fruit. The vacant land in Garut must be planted by kaliki tree. According to the people, the seed of kaliki contain oil that could be used to operate vehicle engine of Japanese troops. The yard of houses must also be used to add food need like cassava, tubes, or taro.[12] The rich men should voluntarily or forcibly contribute their finery like gold, silver, diamond, and jewelry to support Japanese troops in battle-field. The people who had vehicles, both motorcycle and car, should deliver them to the Japanese government. Besides that, poles as decoration in the down town of Garut and other old iron should be surrendered too. All the materials were collected in the square, and in the short time without being known by the people, all the materials were gone. Usually, if materials were to be taken away, then the Japanese army would sound siren at night as the sign of Allied forces attack, during which people must hide in the hole while biting rubber. Actually what happened was that the Japanese troops were taking the wealth away from Garut.
The consequence of Japanese military occupation policy impoverished the economic life of Garut city people. To find out the main food people should have card from each kuco (village-head).[13] The people should keep lining up for hours to get their turn. Unfortunately, not all the people could have their share, because the stock was limited. Others who did not get any share should eat tuber, cassava, taro or even they had to eat banana tree trunk. Finally, many people in Garut were starved, lack of nutrient, many suffered from cholera, malaria, or even they died.[14]
The Chinese people had other ways to prevent hunger. They had to make porridge from the rice in order that their rice stock was not finished quickly. Also the community of Arabs and Pakistani should be thrifty with the food in order not to be hungry.[15] Besides scarcity of food, clothing had also been disappearing from the market since 1943. The people generally used gunny sack as a dress or rubber as trousers. In Sanding area, the dead man was buried wrapped in mat, because if someone was wrapped in shroud, the grave would be exhumed at night to take the shroud for clothing. The lack of food and clothing were suffered by indigenous people generally, whereas the Chinese, Arabs, and Pakistani did not suffered that much. It means that they still had food and clothing although in poor condition. The Japanese army government also obliged the people to carry out romusha (forced labour) to assist various interests of Japanese troops in the battle-field. The romusha workers recruited from numerous villages had to work in Cilampeni (Bandung) to construct the airport, in Ngamplang, Pamengpeuk, Cilacap to make the caves as military defense, in gold mining Cikotok for taking the gold, and the opening of railway from Saketi to Bayah in Banten. The romusha workers from Garut were also sent to Philippines, Burma, Vietnam, etc.. Romusha was not obliged to the easterner (Chinese, Arab, and Pakistani). In return for romusha, the non-indigenous residents (16th years old upward) were obliged to pay one hundred rupiah (Rp. 100,-) per three month. The payment identity card must be brought wherever they went as a proof of their loyalty to the Japanese army government.[16]
The Japanese army also looked after “prostitutes” (jugun ianfu) who were placed in Hotel Papandayan, Societet intro montes building, Hotel Ngamplang, Cipanas, and Garut Shoku kusho complex. They also sometimes took away women nicely or forcibly everywhere they wanted. The consequences of Japanese army activities in Garut induced the down town situation and its surroundings since the last two years of Japanese occupation became silent and the people were scared to go out. Economic activity was gloomy because besides the markets and shops were closed, the purchasing power of the people was also low. The routine activity that could be seen everyday was only studying activities at schools by students who went to school in the morning and went back in the afternoon.
Disarmament of Japanese Force
The news of Indonesia’s independence on August 17th 1945 reached Garut people a few days later through the secret radio broadcast in Garut Shoku Kusho (GSK). The Japanese civilians, better known as Sakura Japanese, who worked outside Garut city and knew about the news, immediately left Garut. Before leaving, they invited the indigenous workers to take the remaining food and clothing stock in their warehouses. However, the Sakura Japanese who stayed in Garut textile factory, or better known as Garut Shoku Kusho (GSK) remained there. Likewise, Japanese troops remained defending themselves in Garut city and centered in the headquarters in Talun.
The Sakura Japanese who worked in GSK, led by Matzumoto, instructed all workers to work as usual and called on not to listen to uncertain news. In order to maintain calmness from something that they did not want, administrator of GSK asked the Japanese army who stayed in Talun to guard GSK. On October 9th 1945 sixty troops, led by Capt. Nitoshi guarded GSK. They were also equipped by various weapons. However, on behalf of local young people in Garut, some youths, among others Uwes, Amung Makmun, Charly, and Ahmad Marko, advocated by all Garut people succeeded negotiating with and even disarming Japanese army. Finally the young people took over GSK.
On October 10th 1945, during the negotiation, the young people who heard the news immediately went to GSK. They shouted from outside “kill the Japanese”. The young negotiators at first could retain the pressure, but the situation became tense and could no longer be retained, as the consequence of their desire to take revenge against Japanese. Finally, the young people led by Sahlan killed all Japanese troops. The Japanese troops were ordered to squat and then they were slaughtered by samurai belonging to Japanese troops. It was lucky that Sakura Japanese, led by Matzumoto, were safe because before the slaughter occurred, they were taken away by Uwes to Cikajang.
Two days after, 57 vehicles, including 15 tanks, loaded about 900 Japanese troops departed from Ujung Berung (Bandung) to Garut. They entered Garut after destroying the people who blocked them in Tarogong and Haur Panggung, and killing 50 men. They did whatever they wanted to do in Garut, like taking materials, women, or anything else. On October 17th 1945 the agreement was held between two sides in Garut regency. Regent of Garut, T. Kalih Wiriaatmadja, represented Garut people, whereas Col. Akano from Bandung represented the Japanese. From the result of the agreement, the two sides would maintain peace in Garut city. Besides that, the Japanese army took over GSK. It seemed that they wanted to take revenge against the people for killing their friends on October 10th. On October 19th night the Japanese troops pretended to be nice, namely they opened warehouse of GSK with full of cloth/textiles. They shouted “Indonesia, please take the cloth in the warehouse”. Of course, the people, who passed by were lured to take it. Many people tried to take the cloth. However, after they were inside, the door was closed and the Japanese set them on fire. In the next morning when the warehouse door was forced to open many corpses piled up near the locked-door. They were more or less 200 people who died in GSK tragedy. Meanwhile, the Japanese troops managed to escape in the dark night.[17] Of course Garut people, especially the young people were upset. They intended to take revenge against Japanese atrocity who still lived in Talun. However, their intention was postponed for almost one week, because their weapons were not well-balanced compared to those of the Japanese. They informed the problem to their comrades in Bandung, Yogyakarta, Semarang, Blitar, and Surabaya. It seemed that the assistance from Yogyakarta, Semarang, Blitar, and Surabaya came earlier than from Bandung.
On October 26th 1945 at 05.00, they attacked kempetai headquarters in Talun. Although young people of Garut city had the assistance, the Japanese troops were still strong, because besides they had weapons completely also the front yard of headquarters was encircled by barbed wire, and in the back yard lied rice-field and also barbed wire too. Therefore, when the attacker was approaching, the Japanese troops could shoot easily, both who came from the front yard and the back yard. The young people were not hopeless and they incessantly attacked the Japanese troops from all sides. The Japanese troops were pressured and besieged. Many Japanese soldiers died and also many Garut people died, including the commander of Blitar unit, Soepeno.[18] Finally, after the battle lasted for more than three hours, both sides asked for cease-fire. The Allied-forces became mediator to end the battle and also disarmed the Japanese troops. The people of Garut were not satisfied with the Allied-forces, because they allowed the Japanese troops to leave Garut city safely.
Garut City People in 1947-1948
To follow-up of proclamation of lndonesia’s independence, the board of inquiry into preparatory efforts for lndonesia’s Independence in its session, 18th 1945 stipulated the 1945 constitution. Also in its session above, Soekarno and Mohamad Hatta, were respectively elected as President and Vice President of the Republic of Indonesia. The committee then transformed into National Committee of Central Indonesia. In its meeting on August l9th 1945 , the committee divided Indonesia into 8 provinces, namely West Java, Middle Java, East Java, Sumatra, Borneo (Kalimantan), Sulawesi, Maluku, and Sunda Kecil. Each province was led by a governor, who arranged the government in the region. The central government also instructed the regency to govern the region well.
Referring to the instruction of central government, National Committee of Region Indonesia in Garut was established on September 2nd 1945. The committee had 7 members namely K.H. Musadad, Yusuf Tauziri, Dana Atmaja, Surawijaya, Wira, Muh. Fazri, and Ganda. Based on committee meeting, R.d. Kalih Wiriaatmadja was appointed as regent of Garut.
In implementing its task, committee region of Garut regency gave explanation to the people about welcoming and defending lndonesia’s independence, and also formed people security body, rebel front of Indonesian people, Hisbullah, association of Muhammadiyah youth, and association of Pasundan youths.[19]
When Garut regency was coordinating its government, suddenly on July 21st 1947 occurred the 1st Dutch military action. It seemed that the Dutch wanted to comeback and control lndonesia. The Dutch troops entered Garut via Japati, Pangalengan, and Cikajang. In their attack, they were also assisted by air force and its parachutists who landed on Jayaraga square.[20] The Dutch troops occupied Garut city on August 10th 1947 after the Dutch air force bombed several places, namely Dodol Amat factory, Bunga Melati Hotel, and Nansen Soap factory. Those places were bombed, because they were considered as the posts of lndonesia’s fighters. Before entering Garut city, the Dutch troops also conducted aftack on the large scale towards Karawang, Cikampek, Purwakarta, Kalijati (Subang), lndramayu, Cirebon, Bogor, Sukabumi, Puncak, Sumedang, and Bandung.[21]
The Dutch troops, who had occupied Garut city, threatened that all the officials and the fighters of Garut, who were still loyal to the Republic of Indonesia, should leave Garut soon. And if they did rot obey the instruction, the Dutch troops would take a stern action. Given that threat, the regency of Garut and the fighters evacuated to the south area, Bungbulang. Garut residents also evacuated to the east, west, north, and south areas. Before evacuating, they scorched all buildings made by the Dutch, among other things, railway station, Papandayan Hotel, Ngamplang Hotel, and full-oil resource.
The Garut people along with the fighters conducted guerrilla against the Dutch who occupied Garut city from their hiding place, mainly in Cilawu, Dayeah Manggung, and mount Cikuray. To hold back the guerrillas, the Dutch troops placed a tight security at the border of Garut city (Cimaragas) with various weapons. The headquarters of the Dutch troops in the square (ex assistant resident building) in Sukaregang, in Jl. Pasundan, and in Sanding.
On July 30th 1947 representatives from India and Australia in United Nations proposed suggestion to solve Indonesian problem. The United Nations, on August 1st 1947 issued the order that warring sides (Indonesia versus Dutch) should carry out cease-fire and looking for peace. Therefore on August 4th 1947, the Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch issued a cease-fire.[22]
On December 19th 1948 the Dutch conducted the 2nd military action. After the Dutch troops controlled Garut, NICA (Netherlands lndies Civil Administration) appointed R.T. Agus Padmanagara as regent of Garut, replaced Rd. Kalih Wiriaatmadja who evacuated to Bungbulang.[23]
The Dutch troops chased the fighters of Garut incessantly and tried to eliminate them. However, the fighters, assisted by the people, especially in having food, kept defending themselves in guerrilla enclaves while conducting counter-attack against the Dutch. The people and the fighters kept fighting until the Dutch left Garut in 1949.
Social-economic life in Garut in the early of lndonesia’s independence changed slightly. The transition from the Japanese and Dutch military occupation to atmosphere of freedom induced social-economic uncertainty. The initiative to improve economic life could not yet be realised, because all potentials, human resources, natural resources were focused on military and political problems to defend lndonesia’s independence.
Generally, the economic problems at that time happened because: (1) The people who had just felt lndonesia’s independence disturbed by Dutch occupation in 1947 untii 1948; (2) In the period of Dutch military occupation several city facilities, especially the places for people to work, like factories and hotels were destroyed, therefore many people lost their job; and (3) The people had lack attention to till land and trade, because besides the situation was unstable, also the people often moved suddenly to prevent Dutch attacks.[24]
Social economic life of the Chinese ethnic in the early of lndonesia’s independence was difficult to decide. However their economic life was generally better than that of the indigenous people. According to Donald E. Willmott, in the time of around Indonesia’s independence, the Chinese people in can be divided into 4 categories. Firstly, neutral group, namely the owner of shop and ordinary traders. The uncertain situation as the consequence of revolution was made as a good chance by them to take the advantage. They prepared all materials both for Dutch and Indonesian people. Secondly, a pro-Dutch group, namely they wanted to cooperate with the Dutch both in economic and military sphere. Thirdly, a small pro-Indonesian group, namely they wanted to join Indonesian struggle like assisted the food for the fighters or they wanted to fight against the Dutch. The last one, the Chinese group, who inflicted a loss upon both Indonesian and Dutch, namely they amassed materials needed by both sides, and also they committed transaction in black market. Their activity raised hatred, especially among Indonesian people, because they did not care for people suffering. From this group turned up new rich men among the Chinese community.[25]
At first, the Chinese community in Garut city supported Indonesian people struggle, however when the Dutch returned to Garut city around 1947-1948, they were compelled to side with the Dutch. This type, among others, did not want to evacuate to the outside of Garut city, as instructed by government, and then around August 1947 they formed Chinese organisation, Pao An Tui where its members were trained military and armed to strengthen the Dutch stronghold and protected the safety of Chinese community. Their standpoint, actually based on the principle of “Looking for safety”. They did not care who governed Indonesia. The main point for them is their safety and an advantageous business opportunity.
Since lndonesia’s independence until 1949 the central government had not yet paid attention over Chinese citizenship, because the government still focused its attention to defend independence, disarmament of Japanese troops, and fighting against Dutch military actions. In April 1946, Indonesian government (in Yogyakarta), issued citizenship law based on ius soli and passive system.[26]
Social-economic life of Arabs and Pakistanis in the early of Indonesia’s independence were not so different from the Chinese. However, when the Dutch military actions occurred (1947-1948), they went along to evacuate to the outskirts of Garut city. Arabs evacuated to Godog area, while Pakistanis evacuated to Cimasuk and Sompok area. Their participation was committed as solidarity and responsibility to take part in defending Indonesia’s Independence.
In the period of Dutch occupation, there were two Ghurka soldiers who deserted to the republic of side, namely Muhammadin (ex-pilot) and Murtazah (ex-ground forces). They often disguised themselves as driver of Pakistani and smuggled weapons from Bandung fighters who carried out guerrilla-war in Garut area. After revolution, Murtazah no longer lived in Garut, while Muhammadin lived in Garut and worked as a truck driver of Pakistani, and even he married with woman from Garut (Wanaraja district).[27]
The Business of Arabs after 1949 continued to trade like they did before in the era of Dutch colonial. They trade, especially for Moslem people, like prayer mat (sajadah), sarong, moslem books, etc.. Likewise, the Pakistanis had a shop that sold, especially textiles and moslem needs.
After Indonesia’s independence, the amount of school buildings in Garut city did not increase. The school buildings constituted the legacy from the Dutch colonial, where its curriculum was conformed to era of Indonesian government. The school subjects applied in Japanese era, mainly Japanese language and various of military ceremonies were omitted. The new subjects that were studied were mainly reading, writing, and arithmetic. When Garut people were improving their educational sphere actively to foster human resources quality, then the Dutch conducted military actions.
The result of the actions above was that educational sphere underwent uncertain situation, because the people who had the spirit of the republic (republiken) left Garut to join the fighters in guerrilla’s enclaves, especially in south area of Garut. Many students, age 14 years old upward, left their school to take part in struggle and joined their parents, friends, or compatriots who lived in refuge area.[28] The students had great motivation to study in refuge area, albeit they were in emergency condition. Generally they faced various difficulties, especially in preparing teachers, books, and safe places to study from enemy attack. At that time, whoever wanted to be a teacher could teach students like soldiers, traders, housewives, etc.. Those factors induced a part of them returned to Garut city to have education under Dutch control.[29]
It can be understood that if education process during Indonesian revolution could not lasted properly and calmly, because sometimes the people, both who lived in urban and refuge area, they should prioritize their safety and compelled to leave anything (including school) if emergency occurred.
For the Chinese community, the continuity of educational process during Dutch military occupation in Garut city was not a problem, because they did not join to evacuate to the outside of Garut city. At first, there were several Chinese people who joined to evacuate to the south area, namely in Waspada and Juliana plantation (around Bayongbong and Cikajang area), however the chairman of Chung Hwa Hwee. The Goan Ho asked Indonesian government to allow them returned to Garut city. The request was proposed because facilities in refuge area did not fill conditions and so their safety was not guaranteed.[30]
The school buildings for Chinese students, namely Tinghoa Hwee Koan (THHK) School in Jl. Gunung Payung, Private Public School in Jl. Ciledug, and Christelijk Hollandsch Indlandsche Chineesche School (CHICS) in Talun. Curriculum in those schools was conformed to the period of Dutch colonial. The Japanese language was omitted and changed to Melayu language. Even in Private Public School and CHICS, the Dutch language became formal language. The reason, because many Chinese people (especially the parents) were able to speak Dutch, and therefore they advocated their children to go to school there. After Dutch military occupation ended, the Chinese community, represented by Nio Tian Soe proposed to Indonesian government in order that the Dutch language was allowed to be taught in those schools. However the suggestion was refused, because the curriculum must be conformed to the regulation of the government.
Conclusion
The resistance of Garut people against the Japanese and the Dutch military occupation constitute a part of Indonesian struggle to defend independence of the Republic of Indonesia. In practice each ethnic group in Garut city has its own way to respond to the Japanese and the Dutch army.
Indigenous people responded to the Japanese army by killing 60 Japanese soldiers in GSK and also attacking Japanese army headquarters in Talun that caused the death of Soepeno, his compatriots, and injured others fighters. All happened because Japanese military occupation that lasted 3½ years had impoverished Garut people by exploiting human and natural resources.
Meanwhile, the Chinese community responded to Japanese military occupation passively, because they did not want to take a risk in facing Japanese army. The Arabs and Pakistani community responded to the Japanese military occupation by supporting Garut city people spiritually, because they felt that they also constituted of Indonesia people who had lived in Garut city for a long time.
Indigenous people responded to the Dutch military occupation by evacuating to the outside of Garut city and committing guerrilla in their refuge area to defend independence of the Republic of Indonesia. They fought incessantly against the Dutch, because they wanted to be free and no longer want to be colonized by the Dutch.
For the Chinese community, it can be said, that they sided with the Dutch, because for them whoever ruled the main point was that they could live better and gained advantages. Response of Arabs and Pakistani to the Dutch are the same as that of the indigenous people, because during the Dutch military occupation they took part to evacuate to the outside of Garut and supported the fighters spiritually and materially.
Bibliography
Anggapradja, Sulaeman. n.d.. Sejarah Garut dari Masa ke Masa. Garut: Pemerintah Daerah Tingkat II Kabupaten Garut.
Anggapradja, Sulaeman. n.d.. Sejarah Garut: Kabupaten Garut Sekilas-Lintas. Garut: n.p..
Benda, Herry J. 1980. Bulan Sabit dan Matahari Terbit: Islam di Indonesia pada Masa Pendudukan Jepang. Translation. Jakarta: PT Dunia Pustaka Jaya.
Besluit van den Gouverneur-Generaal van Nederlandsch-Indie van 7 Mei 1913, No.60.
Disjarahdam VI Siliwangi. 1979. Siliwangi dari Masa ke Masa. Bandung: Penerbit Angkasa.
Extract from the proceeding of the honorable the Lieutenant Governor in Council in the Public Departement. Batavia: the 16th February 1813.
“Hari Jadi Garut” in Lembaran Daerah Kabupaten Daerah Tingkat II Garut, No.2 (1982) and No.3(1983), Seri D. Garut: Pemda Garut.
“Melucuti Jepang di Pabrik Tekstil Garut 1945: Dendam Pemuda Membantai 60 Serdadu Jepang yang Tak Berdaya” in Buana Minggu. Jakarta: 24 Maret 1985.
Oetoesan Garoet: Batjaan Oentoek Oemoem. Garoet: Badan Penerangan Pabrik Tenoen Garoet, 1945.
Staatblad van Nederlandsch-Indie, No.356 (1913).
Surat Kerangan Pembajaran dan Penduduk Pemerintah Tentara Nippon, 17 Mei 1942.
Surianigrat, Bayu. 1985. Pustaka Kabupaten I Bhumi Limbangan D ng Garut. Bandung: n.p..
Suryadinata, Leo. 1984. Dilema Minoritas Tionghoa. Jakarta: Grafiti Pers.
Willmott, Donald E.. 1961. The National Status of the Chinese in Indonesia, 1900-1958. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Modern Indonesia Project, Southeast Asia Program Department of Far Eastern Studies.
Interviews:
Ahmad Marko, 83 years old, Garut fighter. Garut: September 3rd 1996.
Amanullah, 53 years old, Pakistan descendant. Garut: Mei 20th 1996.
Col.(retired) Rustama, 71 years old, Garut fighter. Garut: September 24th 1996.
Cornelia Yohana, 76 years old, Indo-Dutch descendant. Garut: July 17th 1996.
Erus Suwarsa, 72 years old, Garut fighter. Garut: August 27th 1996.
- Edi Efendi, 74 years old, Garut fighter. Garut: July 21st 1996.
Nazar bin Said Abdul Azis, 75 years old, Arab descendant. Garut: July 21st 1996.
Sulaeman Anggapraja, 69 years old, the writer of History of Garut. Garut: July 22nd 1996.
Yo Liang Kie, 73 years old, Chinese descendant. Garut: April 15th 1996.
Yo Tiong Seng, 75 years old, Chinese descendant. Garut: September 29th 1996.
[1]See Extract from the proceeding of the honourable the Lieutenant Governor in Council, in the Public Department (Batavia: the 16th February 1813); and Sulaeman Anggapradja, Sejarah Garut dari Masa ke Masa (Garut: Pemerintah Daerah Tingkat II Kabupaten Garut, n.d.), p.114.
[2]Sulaeman Anggapradja, Sejarah Garut: Kabupaten Garut Sekilas-Lintas (Garut: n.p., n.d.), p.7.
[3]Ibid..
[4]“Hari Jadi Garut” in Lembaran Daerah Kabupaten Daerah Tingkat II Garut, No.2 (1982) and No.3 (1983), Seri D (Garut: Pemda Garut), p.2.
[5]Ibid., p.3.
[6]Ibid., p.9.
[7]See Staatblad van Nederlandsch-Indie, No.356; and Besluit van den Gouverneur General van Nederlandsch-Indie van 7 Mei 1913, No.60.
[8]Sulaeman Anggapradja, Sejarah Garut dari …, Op.Cit., p.160-61.
[9]Bayu Suningrat, Pustaka Kabupaten I Bhumi Limbangan D ng Garut (Bandung: n.p., 1985), p.218.
[10]Interview with H. Edi Efendi (Garut: July 21st 1996).
[11]Harry J. Benda, Bulan Sabit dan Matahari Terbit: Islam di Indonesia pada Masa Pendudukan Jepang, Translation (Jakarta: PT Dunia Pustaka Jaya, 1980), p.155-56.
[12]Interview with Erus Suwarsa (Garut: Agust 27th 1996).
[13]Interview with Ahmad Marko (Garut: September 3rd 1996).
[14]Interview with Yo Liang Kie (Garut: April 15th 1996); Nazar bin Said Abdul Azis (Garut: 21st Juli 1996); Amanullah (Garut: Mei 20th 1996); and Cornelia (Garut: Juli 17th 1996).
[15]Lihat Surat Keterangan Pembajaran dan Penduduk Pemerintah Tentara Nippon, 17 Mei 1942.
[16]Oetoesan Garoet: Batjaan Oentoek Oemoem (Garoet: Badan Penerangan Pabrik Tenoen Garoet, 1945).
[17]Lihat “Melucuti Jepang di Pabrik Tekstil Garut 1945: Dendam Pemuda Membantai 60 Serdadu Jepang yang Tak Berdaya” in Buana Minggu (Jakarta: 24 Maret 1945); and Interview with Ahmad Marko (Garut: September 3rd 1996).
[18]Oetoesan Garoet: Batjaan Oentoek Oemoem (Garoet: Badan Penerangan Pabrik Tenoen Garoet, 1945).
[19]Interview with Ahmad Marko (Garut: September 3rd 1996).
[20]Interview with Col.(retired) Rustama (Garut: September 24th 1996).
[21]Disjarahdam VI Siliwangi, Siliwangi dari Masa ke Masa (Bandung: Penerbit Angkasa, 1979), p.89-92.
[22]Ibid., p.110.
[23]Interview with Sulaeman Anggrapradja (Garut: July 22nd 1996).
[24]Interview with Ahmad Marko (Garut: Septermber 3rd 1996).
[25]Donald E. Willmott, The National Status of the Chinese in Indonesia, 1900-1958 (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Modern Indonesia Project, Southeast Asia Program Departement of Far Eastern Studies, 1961), p.20-1.
[26]The law mentions that: “warga negara Indonesia terdiri dari orang asli yang bertempat tinggal di daerah di Indonesia dan orang-orang yang tidak dalam kelompok tersebut di atas, akan tetapi yang lahir di daerah-daerah teritorial Indonesia dan telah tinggal di sana selama lima tahun terakhir berturut-turut, serta mereka yang telah berumur 21 tahun, dengan syarat orang-orang tersebut tidak menolak kewarganegaraan Indonesia, karena menjadi warga negara lain”. See Leo Suryadinata, Dilema Minoritas Tionghoa (Jakarta: Grafiti Pers, 1984), p.116.
[27]Interview with Amanullah (Garut: Mei 20th 1996); and Cornelia (Garut: July 17th 1996).
[28]Interview with Erus Suwarsa (Garut: August 27th 1996).
[29]Interview with Sulaeman Anggapradja (Garut: July 22nd 1996).
[30]Interview with Yo Tiong Seng (Garut: September 29th 1996).